THE  TAPPAN-KENDALL  HISTORIES 

A  HISTORY  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

FOR  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS 


BY 

REUBEN  GOLD  THWAITES,  LL.D. 

Late  Superintendent  of  Wisconsin  Historical  Society 

Author  of  "The  Colonies"  "France  in  America"  "Daniel 

Boone"  "Rocky  Mountain  Explorations"  etc. 

AND 

CALVIN  NOYES  KENDALL,  LL.D. 

Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  State  of  New  Jersey 
Formerly  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Indiancpolis^  Indiana 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  eic^  • "..  .'    '„  ; 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 
BOSTON     NEW  YORK     CHICAGO 
Cambridge 


Revised  Edition 


THE  TAPPAN-KENDALL  SERIES 
OF  ELEMENTARY  HISTORIES 

BY  EVA  MARCH  TAPPAN,  PH.D. 
AND  CALVIN  NOYES  KENDALL,  LL.D. 

AMERICAN  HERO  STORIES,  Grades  IV-V 
by  Eva  March  Tappan. 

ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OF  OUR  COUNTRY 

Grades  V-VI 
by  Eva  March  Tappan. 

OUR  EUROPEAN  ANCESTORS,  Grades  VI-VII 
by  Eva  March  Tappan. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Grades  VII-VIII 

'    by  Reuben  Gold  Thivaites 
.'     and  'Calvin  Noyes  Kendall. 


Fourteenth  impression 
January,  1920 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY  REUBEN  GOLD  THWAITES  AND  CALVIN  NOYES  KENDALL 
COPYRIGHT,  IQiS,  BY  JESSIE  P.  THWAITES  AND  CALVIN  NOYES  KENDALL 

ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  •  MASSACHUSETTS 

U    •    S   .    A 


PREFACE 

WE  have  in  the  present  book  subordinated  unimportant 
events  and  facts  in  American  history  to  the  essentials; 
many  details  commonly  contained  in  other  texts  have, 
therefore,  been  omitted.  This  has  made  it  possible  to 
throw  into  relief  the  really  great  scenes  and  periods  in  the 
story  of  our  country's  evolution :  for  example,  the  explora 
tions  of  Columbus,  the  Revolution,  the  westward  movement 
of  our  population,  the  division  and  rehabilitation  of  the 
Union,  and  the  latter-day  industrial  development  of  the 
nation.  This  emphasis  upon  important  facts  is  further  indi 
cated  by  the  illustrations:  thus,  the  full-page  pictures  are 
representative  of  four  of  the  most  significant  epochs  in  our 
history  —  the  discovery  of  America,  facing  page  I;  the  in 
dependence  of  the  United  States,  page  150;  the  ending  of 
sectional  disputes,  page  349;  and  the  expansion  of  the 
nation,  page  402.  Throughout  the  book  the  larger  text 
illustrations  focus  attention  upon  the  men  and  events  of 
most  far-reaching  influence. 

So  far  as  is  consistent  with  historical  scholarship  and 
teaching  requirements,  we  have  sought  to  present  an  attrac 
tive  story  of  our  country's  career  —  to  make  this  a  child's 
book.  A  dry-as-dust  text,  cluttered  with  unnecessary  detail, 
is  apt  to  arouse  in  the  class  an  unfortunate  spirit  of  revulsion 
against  any  serious  study  or  reading  of  history. 

We  believe  that  this  is  also,  in  a  marked  degree,  a  teacher's 
book.  Especial  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  pedagogical 
equipment,  which  we  have  sought  to  construct  along  the 
line  of  the  best  modern  methods.  The  composition  subjects  . 
may  be  used  both  as  a  part  of  the  historical  work  and  for 
exercises  in  English ;  and  suggestions  are  offered  for  drama 
tization,  with  a  view  of  making  the  story  still  more  vivid. 
At  the  end  of  each  Period  is  a  review  chapter;  also  care- 

44G792 


iv  PREFACE 

fully  classified  reading  lists  for  both  teachers  and  pupils. 
With  this  wealth  of  equipment,  the  detailed  Suggestions 
to  Teachers  ( pages  xvii-xxvi),  and  the  carefully  constructed 
Index,  even  the  instructor  of  small  experience  should  be 
able  to  make  American  history  a  live  study. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  secure  suitable  illustrations. 
These  include  reproductions  of  many  celebrated  historical 
paintings  and  portraits,  such  as  every  child  should  know,  con 
temporary  engravings,  views,  and  documents  indicating  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  and  photographs  and  drawings  showing 
the  development  of  the  country's  natural  resources,  the 
means  of  transportation,  and  the  like.  Each  of  these,  together 
with  the  many  helpful  maps,  has  passed  the  inspection  of 
competent  historical  experts.  They  are,  with  their  descrip 
tive  legends,  intended  to  be  studied,  not  merely  to  be 
looked  at. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  book  we  have  had  assistance 
from  so  many  persons  that  it  would  be  quite  impracticable 
in  this  restricted  space  to  mention  them  all.  We  are,  how 
ever,  under  special  obligations  to  the  following  teachers  who 
have  read  and  often  re-read  the  manuscript,  and  offered 
numerous  valuable  suggestions  that  we  have  been  glad  to 
adopt:  Miss  Elizabeth  Hodgdon,  principal  of  the  Scranton 
Street  School,  New  Haven,  Connecticut;  Miss  Lydia 
Blaich  and  Miss  Anna  Brochausen,  supervising  principals, 
and  Miss  Flora  Swan  and  Miss  Grace  Shoup,  departmental 
teachers  of  history,  in  the  Indianapolis  public  schools. 
Dr.  Carl  Russell  Fish,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  has, 
among  others,  read  critically  the  entire  book.  Dr.  Louise 
Phelps  Kellogg,  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Wisconsin  His 
torical  Society,  has  rendered  important  service  in  many 
directions,  especially  in  the  preparation  of  reading  lists 
and  maps,  in  the  verification  of  data,  and  in  assistance  on 
the  Index. 

REUBEN  G.  THWAITES, 
CALVIN  N.  KENDALL. 


CONTENTS 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS xvii 

THE   PERIOD  OF   DISCOVERY 

I.  THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS i 

i.  Early  trade  with  the  Orient.  —  2.  The  trade  with  the  Orient  is  in 
terrupted.  —  3.  Barriers  to  ocean  navigation.  —  4.  Portuguese  dis 
coveries.  —  5.  Increasing  interest  in  exploration.  —  6.  Columbus  in 
Portugal.  —  7.  Columbus  decides  to  make  a  voyage  into  the  West. 

—  8.  He  seeks  aid.  —  9.  The  expedition  starts.  —  10.  The  voyage.  — 
ii.  Land  discovered.  —  12.  Taking  possession  of  the  New  World.  — 

—  13.  The  land  and  the  people.  —  14.  The  new  land  supposed  to  be 
India.  —  15.    Searching    for  wealth. —  16.    Triumphant    return.— 
17.  Other  voyages  by  Columbus.  —  18.  Death  of  Columbus. 

II.  IN  THE  FOOTSTEPS  OF  COLUMBUS 17 

19.  England  discovers  North  America.  —  20.  Americus  Vespucius 
and  the  naming  of  America.  —  21.  Spanish  explorations  and  con 
quests.  —  22.  Magellan's  voyage  around  the  world.  —  23.  Results 
of  Magellan's  exploit.  —  24.  De  Soto's  expedition.  —  25.  Coro- 
nado's  great  march.  —  26.  Spanish  settlements.  —  27.  Spanish  mis 
sionaries. 

III.  ENGLISH  AND  DUTCH  DISCOVERIES 26 

28.  English  buccaneers.  —  29.  The  Grand  Armada.  —  30.  Drake's 
voyage.  —  31.  Henry  Hudson's  discovery. 

IV.  FRENCH  DISCOVERIES  AND  SETTLEMENTS 31 

32.  New    France  founded.  —  33.      Champlain's  explorations.  - 
34.  French    relations  with    the  Indians.  —  35.    Fur-trade    posts.  — 
36.  Jesuit  missionaries.  —  37.  The  French  explore  the  Mississippi. 

—  38.  La  Salle's  explorations.  —  39.  Founding  of  Louisiana. 

V.  THE  INDIANS 40 

40.  Three    great    groups.  —  41.  Characteristics.  —  42.   Religion.— 
43.  Mounds.  —  44.  Villages    and    houses.  —  45.  Food,    tools,    and 
clothing. — 46.  The     Indian     in     War.  —  47.  What     the     Indians 
taught  the  white  men.  —  48.  Aid  given  to  white  settlers.  —  49.  The 
pioneers'  view  of  the  Indians. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS 47 


vi  CONTENTS 

THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

VI.  EARLIEST  ATTEMPTS  TO  SETTLE  VIRGINIA 50 

50.  America  a  land  of  opportunity.  —  51.  England  ready  to  colo 
nize.  —  52.  Raleigh's  colonies.  —  53.  The  father  of  English  settle 
ment  in  America. 

VII.  THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA 54 

54.  Two  companies  organized.  —  55.  Popular  interest  in  coloniza 
tion.  —  56.  The  first  colonists.  —  57.  Founding  of  Jamestown.  — 
58.  Captain  John  Smith.  —  59.  The  starving  time.  —  60.  Indi 
vidual  ownership.  —  61.  Tobacco  raising.  —  62.  Slavery.  —  63.  A 
representative  assembly.  —  64.  Importation  of  wives.  —  65.  Vir 
ginia  becomes  a  royal  colony.  —  66.  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads.  — 
67.  Bacon's  Rebellion.  —  68.  Progress  of  the  colony.  —  69.  Col 
lege  of  William  and  Mary. 

VIII.  OTHER  SOUTHERN  COLONIES         68 

70.  Maryland.  —  71.  The  Carolinas.  —  72.  Georgia. 

IX.  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES .75 

73.  John  Smith  names  New  England.  —  74.  Struggle  for  religious 
liberty.  —  75.  Puritans    and     Separatists.  —  76.  The     Pilgrims.  — 

77.  The  Pilgrims  in  Holland.  —  78.  Sailing  of  the  Mayflower.  — 
79.  Landing  at  Plymouth.  —  80.  Self-government  established.  — 
81.  Getting  established.  —  82.  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.— 
83.  Town  meetings.  —  84.  Increase  of  immigration.  —  85.  Public 
instruction.  —  86.  Religious  intolerance.  —  87.  Religious  disturb 
ances.  —  88.  The  rule  of  Andros.  —  89.  Founding  of  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire. — 90.  Founding  of  Connecticut.' — 91.  Founding  of 
Rhode  Island.  —  92.  New  England  Confederation.  —  93.  King 
Philip's  War. 

X.  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 94 

94.  New  Netherland  established.  —  95.  New  Amsterdam.  —  96. 
Early  prosperity.  —  97.  Captured  by  the  English.  —  98.  Struggles 
for  liberty.  —  99.  The  planting  of  New  Jersey.  —  100.  Pennsyl 
vania  founded.  —  101.  Penn's  arrival  in  the  colony.  —  102.  Phil 
adelphia  founded.  —  103.  Adoption  of  the  Great  Law.  —  104.  The 
Great  Treaty  with  the  Indians.  —  105.  The  Mason  and  Dixon 
Line,  —  106.  Later  history  of  Pennsylvania.  —  107.  Delaware. 

XL  COLONIAL  LIFE  AND  CONDITIONS  IN  1750    .      ...      .       .107 

108.  Three    groups    of    colonies.  —  109.  Southern    society.  —  no. 

Southern  occupations  and  commerce.  —  in.  New  England  society. 

—  112.   New  England  occupations  and  commerce.  —  113.  Society  in 

the  Middle  Colonies.  —  114.  Occupations  in  the  Middle  Colonies. 


CONTENTS  vii 

—  115.  Navigation  laws,   and  smuggling.  —  116.  Domestic  manu 
factures. —  117.  Houses.  —  118.  Furniture     and     interiors.  —  119. 
Clothing.  —  120.    Churches.  —  121.    Education.  —  122.    Amuse 
ments  and  sports.  —  123.  Roads,  travel,  and  taverns.  —  124.  Crimes 
and  punishments.  —  125.  "In  good  old  colony  days." 

XII.  THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  BY  ENGLAND       .      .      .      .121 

126.  Wars  between  France  and  England.  —  127.  French  claims.  — 
128.  English  counter  claims.  —  129.  Rivalry  in  the  Ohio  River  Val 
ley.  —  130.  The  French  ordered  off  by  Virginia.  —  131.  Washing 
ton's  winter  journey.  —  132.  Washington  defeated.  —  133.  The 
Albany  plan  of  union.  —  134.  Braddock's  defeat.  —  135.  Removal  of 
the  Acadians.  —  136.  Guarding  the  Western  frontier.  —  137.  Wil 
liam  Pitt.  —  138.  The  fall  of  Quebec.  —  139.  The  end  of  New  France. 

—  140.  Effect  of  the  war.  —  141.  Pontiac's  War. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS 134 

THE   REVOLUTION 

XIII.  THE  GROWTH  OF  DISSATISFACTION 135 

142.  The  two  points  of  view:  British  and  Colonial.  —  143.  The  King 
threatens  the  Americans.  —  144.  Methods  of  coercion.  —  145.  The 
Navigation  and  Manufacturing  Acts.  —  146.  The  standing  army.  — 
147.  The  Stamp  Act.  —  148.  Fighting  the  Stamp  Act.  —  149.  Taxa 
tion  and  representation  in  England.  —  150.  Import  duties  levied.  — 
151.  The  Boston  Massacre.  —  152.  An  offer  of  cheap  tea.  —  153. 
Colonial  "tea-parties."  —  154.  The  "Intolerable  Acts."  —  155.  Re 
sisting  the  new  laws.  —  156.  First  Continental  Congress.  —  157. 
Americans  will  not  yield. 

XIV.  THE  COLONISTS  DECLARE  THEIR  INDEPENDENCE.          .      .      .151 

158.  Beginning  of  hostilities.  —  159.  Second  Continental  Congress. 

—  1 60.  George  Washington  appointed  commander.  —  161.  Ticon- 
deroga    and    Crown    Point.  —  162.  Battle  of   Bunker   Hill.  —  163. 
Washington  takes  command.  —  164.  The  British  evacuate  Boston.  — 
165.   Urging  independence.  —  166.  The  Declaration  of  Independence. 

—  167.  The  Signing  of  the  Declaration.  —  168.  The  contestants. 

XV.  Two  YEARS  OF  FIGHTING  IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES         .      .      .167 
169.  The  British  go  to  the  Middle  States.  —  170.  They  capture  New 
York.  —  171.  Washington  retreats  across  New  Jersey.  —  172.  Bat 
tle  of  Trenton.  —  173.  The  patriotic  services  of  Robert  Morris.  — 

174.  Battle  of  Princeton.  —  175.  Distinguished  volunteers  from  Eu 
rope.  —  176.  Burgoyne's  surrender.  —  177.  Battles  of  Brandy  wine 
and  Germantown.  —  178.  The  dreadful  winter  at  Valley  Forge.  — 
179.  France  aids  the  United  States.  —  180.  England  offers  peace.  — 
181.  Battle  of  Monmouth.  —  182.  Watching  the  British. 


£ 


viii  CONTENTS 

XVI.  CLOSING  YEARS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 178 

183.  Indian  depredations.  —  184.  The  brilliant  services  of  George 
Rogers  Clark.  —  185.  The  storming  of  Stony  Point.  —  186.  The 
treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  —  187.  John  Paul  Jones  and  the  priva 
teers.  —  1 88.  The  British  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  —  189. 
Greene  wins  victories.  —  190.  Marion,  Sumter,  and  "  Light-horse 
Harry"  Lee.  — 191.  The  British  surrender  at  Yorktown.  — 192. 
News  of  the  surrender.  — 193.  The  effect  in  England.  —  194.  The 
treaty  of  peace,  and  evacuation  of  New  York.  —  195.  Washing 
ton's  farewell. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS 189 


THE   FORMATION   OF  THE  UNION 

XVII.  UNDER  THE  CONFEDERATION 192 

196.  Articles  of  Confederation  adopted;  formation  of  public  domain. 
—  197.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  prove  co  be  weak.  —  198.  Adop 
tion  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  —  199.  Troubles  under  the  Confedera 
tion. 

XVIII.  THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION    .  ....  199 

200.  The  Constitutional  Convention.  —  201.  Changes  wrought  by 
the  Constitution.  —  202.  Ratification.  —  203.  Election  and  in 
auguration  of  Washington  as  President. 

XIX.  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  IN  1790 206 

204.  Population.  —  205.  The    appearance    of    the    country.  —  206. 
Roads     and    travel.  —  207.    Postal      service.  —  208.  Education.  — 
209.  Slavery.  —  210.    Invention    of  the  cotton-gin. — 211.  Chari 
ties  and  reforms. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS 213 


THE   PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

XX.  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT^  RELATIONS  WITH 

FRANCE  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN 215 

212.  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists. — 213.  "Liberal  construc 
tion"  and  "strict  construction."  —  214.  Hamilton  restores  our  pub 
lic  credit.  —  215.  Revenue,  "Protection,"  and  Federal  Bank. — 
216.  The  Whiskey  Rebellion.  —  217.  France  asks  for  American  aid 
and  is  refused.  —  218.  Great  Britain  treats  us  harshly.  —  219.  Jay's 
Treaty.  —  220.  Relations  with  the  Indians. — 221.  Washington's 
Farewell  Address. 


CONTENTS  ix 

XXI.  THE  WAR  WITH  FRANCE:  ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS:  NULLI 

FICATION  RESOLUTIONS 225 

222.  Our  War  with   France.  —  223.  Alien  and   Sedition   Laws.  — 

224.  Virginia    and    Kentucky    pass    Nullification    Resolutions.  — 

225.  Death  of  Washington. 

XXII.  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE:  THE    LEWIS  AND  CLARK  Ex- 
'PEDITION:  RELATIONS  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  FRANCE     .  230 

'226.  Election  of  President  Jefferson.  —  227.  Americans  covet  the 
Province  of  Louisiana.  —  228.  The  United  States  purchases  Louis 
iana.  —  229.  Some  results  of  the  purchase.  —  230.  The  Lewis  and 
Clark  expedition.  —  231.  Results  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition. 

—  232.  Invention  of  the  steamboat.  —  233.  Impressment  of  Ameri 
can  seamen;  and  injuries  to  our  commerce.  —  234.  The  Embargo 
Act.  —  235.  Jefferson  refuses  a  third  term. 

XXIII.  THE  WAR  OF  1812:  THE  PROTECTIVE  TARIFF  OF  1816  .      .241 

236.  Trickery  of  Great  Britain  and  France.  —  237.  Impressment 
of  seamen  by  Great  Britain.  —  238.  Congress  declares  war  against 
Great  Britain.  —  239.  The  British  desire  peace.  —  240.  The  Ameri 
cans  unprepared.  — 241.  The  Americans  fail  to  capture  Canada.  — 
242.  Old  Ironsides.  —  243.  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  —  244.  Perry's 
victory  on  Lake  Erie.  —  245.  The  British  are  reinforced.  — 246.  The 
British  are  repulsed  on  Lake  Champlain.  —  247.  The  British  attack 
Washington  and  Baltimore.  —  248.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans.  — 
249.  Peace  concluded. — 250.  What  the  war  accomplished. — 251. 
The  protective  tariff  of  1816.  —  252.  The  National  Road. 

XXIV.  THE  ERA  OF  GOOD  FEELINGS:  THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE: 
THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE     . 256 

253.  The  Era  of  Good  Feelings.  —  254.  The  Florida  Purchase.  — 
255.  Westward  migration.  —  256.  Slave  States  against  free  States 

—  257.  The  Missouri  Compromise.  —  258.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

—  259.  Our  northern  boundary  —  Oregon  under  joint  control. 

XXV.  CANALS  AND  RAILWAYS:  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  TEMPERANCE 

REFORM 264 

260.  Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal.  —  261.  The  first  steam  railways.  — 
262.  The  crudeness  of  early  railways.  —  263.  The  beginnings  of 
temperance  reform. 

XXVI.  THE  "  SPOILS  SYSTEM  ":  BEGINNING  OF  ANTI-SLAVERY  AGITA 
TION   270 

264.  Differences  between  the  North  and  South.  —  265.  Election  of 
President  Jackson.  —  266.  "The    spoils    system."  —  267.  The    be 
ginning  of  slavery  agitation.  —  268.  Calhoun  revives  the  nullifica 
tion  doctrine.  —  269.  "Our  Federal  Union:  it  must  be  preserved."  — 
270.  An  American  Dictionary. 


x  CONTENTS 

XXVII.  A  PERIOD  OF  RECKLESS  SPECULATION:  THE  PANIC  OF  1837  .  281 

271.  Election  of  President  Van  Buren.  —  272.  A  period  of  reckless 
speculation.  —  273.  The  panic  of  1837. 

XXVIII.  RELATIONS   WITH    GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   MEXICO:   THE 
ANNEXATION  OF  TEXAS       .       .      .      ....      .      .      .286 

274.  Election  of  Harrison  and  Tyler.  —  275.  Death  of  Harrison.  — 
276.  Tyler  succeeds  to  the  presidency.  —  277.  Tyler  breaks  with 
his  party.  —  278.  The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty.  —  279.  Texas 
becomes  independent  of  Mexico.  —  280.  Annexation  of  Texas.  — 

281.  Invention  of  the  telegraph. 

XXIX.  THE  OREGON  QUESTION,  EXPLORATIONS,  AND  THE  MEXICAN 
WAR:  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  GOLD  IN  CALIFORNIA       .       .       .  293 

282.  Election  of  President  Polk.  —  283.  Our  claims  to  the  Oregon 
country.  —  284.  The    Oregon    Trail.  —  285.   "Fifty-four    forty    or 
fight."  —  286.  The  Texas  boundary  dispute.  —  287.  Our  war  with 
Mexico.  —  288.  Fremont's  explorations.  —  289.  California  rises  in 
revolt.  —  290.  Land  acquired  by  us  from  Mexico.  — 291.  The  dis 
covery  of  gold  in  California. 

XXX.  CONTRASTING  CONDITIONS  IN  NORTH  AND  SOUTH:  THE  COM 

PROMISE  OF  1850:  THE  FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW    .       .      .      .307 

292.  The  North  prosperous.  —  293.  The  South  backward,  because 
of  slavery.  —  294.  Slavery  against  freedom.  —  295.  Election  of 
Taylor  and  Fillmore.  —  296.  Threats  of  breaking  up  the  Union.  — 
297.  The  Compromise  of  1850.  —  298.  Fillmore  becomes  President. 

—  299.  The    Fugitive    Slave  Law.  —  300.  The  Underground    Rail 
road.  —  301.  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

XXXI.  THE  STRUGGLE  FOR   KANSAS:  OUR  FIRST  TREATY  WITH 
JAPAN         .  316 

302.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  —  303.  The  struggle  for  Kansas.  — 
304.  Formation  of  the  Republican  party.  —  305.  Commodore 
Perry  in  Japan. 

XXXII.  THE  PANIC  OF  1857:  THE   DRED  SCOTT   DECISION:  JOHN 
BROWN'S  RAID 321 

306.  The  financial  panic  of  1857.  —  307.  The  Dred  Scott  decision. — 
308.  "Honest  Abe"  Lincoln.  —  309.  Discovery  of  gold  in  Colorado. 

—  310.  Petroleum    found   in   Pennsylvania.  —  311.  John    Brown's 
raid. 

XXXIII.  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  GROWTH 328 

312.  Great  inventions  and  discoveries.  —  313.  Improvements  in  the 
care  of  unfortunate  classes.  —  314.  Immigration  greatly  increases. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS       .      .      ......      .      .      .  331 


CONTENTS  xi 

THE  CIVIL  WAR 

XXXIV.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION:  SECES 
SION  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 336 

315.  Election  of  President  Lincoln.  —  316.  South  Carolina  secedes. 

—  317.  The  Confederate  States  of  America  organized.  —  318.  The 
Confederates  seize  Federal  property.  —  319.  President  Lincoln's  in 
auguration.  —  320.  Unfortunate  condition  of  the  Government.  — 
321.  Fort  Sumter  captured  by  Confederates.  — 322.  The  President 
calls  for  troops.  —  323.  The  effect  in  the  South.  —  324.  The  strength 
and  weakness  of  both  sides.  —  325.  How  geography  affected  the  war. 

XXXV.  THE   BATTLES   OF    1861    AND    1862;   THE    EMANCIPATION 
PROCLAMATION 35° 

326.  Battle  of  Bull  Run.  —  327.  Both  sides  make  their  plans  for 
war.  —  328.  Blockade-running.  —  329.  The  exciting  affair  of  the 
Trent.  —  330.  How  Europeans  felt  toward  the  war.  —  331.  Con 
federate  privateers.  —  332.  Fighting  in  the  East,  1862.  —  333.  Duel 
between  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac.  —  334.  Fighting  in  the  West, 
1872.  —  335.  The  Federals  capture  New  Orleans. — 336.  President 
Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

XXXVI.  THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863  AND  1864;  THE  CONFEDERACY 

is  SPLIT  IN  Two 365 

337.  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  —  338.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
Address. — 339.  The  capture  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson;  the 
Union  triumphs  on  the  Mississippi.  —  340.  Chickamauga  and  Chatta 
nooga.  —  341.  The  "Hammering  Campaign."  —  342.  Grant  fighting 
in  the  Wilderness.  —  343.  Sherman's  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  the 
sea. — 344.  The  service  of  the  navy. — 345.  Farragut  captures  Mobile. 

XXXVII.  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR:  ITS  COST  AND  ITS  RESULTS  .      .  379 

346.  The  President  enters  on  a  second  term.  —  347.  Lee  is  sur 
rounded.  —  348.  The  surrender  of  Lee.  —  349.  The  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln.  —  350.  The  disbandment  of  the  armies.  —  351. 
What  the  war  cost,  in  lives  and  treasure.  —  352.  How  the  money  was 
raised  in  the  North.  —  353.  How  the  money  was  raised  in  the  South. 

—  354.  The  effect  of  the  war  on  Northern  homes.  —  355.   Its  effect 
on  Southern  homes.  —  356.  What  was  accomplished  by  the  war. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS 389 

THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

XXXVIII.  RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE   UNION,   AND  OUR   FOREIGN 
RELATIONS  :  THE  ATLANTIC  CABLE 393 

357.  The  impoverished  South;  the  conduct  of  the  negroes.  —  358. 
President  Lincoln's  method  of  reconstruction.  —  359.  Johnson  sue- 


xii  CONTENTS 

ceedsLincoln.  —  360.  Johnson's  reconstruction  methods.— 361.  Why 
Congress  objected  to  Johnson's  plan.  —  362.  The  Congressional 
plan  of  reconstruction.  —  363.  The  Tenure-of-Office  Act.  —  364.  The 
President  is  impeached.  —  365.  Carpetbag  government  in  the  South. 
—  366.  The  Atlantic  Cable.  —  367.  Our  foreign  relations. 

XXXIX.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WEST,  AND  THE  PANIC  OF  1873  403 
368.  Election    of     President     Grant.  —  369.  Reconstruction    com 
pleted. —  370.  The  Alabama  Claims. — 371.  The  development  of 
the  West.  —  372.  Panics  and  labor  troubles,  1873-1877.  —  373.  The 
Centennial  Exposition. 

XL.  THE  END  OF  CARPETBAG  GOVERNMENT  IN  THE  SOUTH,  AND  THE 

RESUMPTION  OF  SPECIE  PAYMENTS 411 

374.  The  election  of  President  Hayes.  —  375.  The  end  of  carpetbag 
government  in  the  South.  —  376.  The  resumption  of  specie  pay 
ments.  --  377.  Captain  Eads's  Mississippi  jetties. 

XLI.  CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM:    THE  NEW  SOUTH  AND  ITS  PROS 
PERITY       4I5 

378.  The  assassination  of  President  Garfield.  —  379.  Civil  service  re 
form.  —  380.  Raduction  in  postage.  —  381.  The  New  South  and  its 
prosperity. 

XLII.  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  CAPITAL  AND  LABOR:  THREE  FAMOUS 

LAWS          420 

382.  Election  of  President  Cleveland.  —  383.  Death  of  General 
Grant.  —  384.  Labor  troubles;  anarchy  in  Chicago.  —  385.  The 
Australian  ballot.  —  386.  Three  famous  laws. 

XLI  1 1.  THE  RUSH  TO  OKLAHOMA,  AND  THE  ADMISSION  OF  WESTERN 

STATES  :  \\TOMAN  SUFFRAGE - .       .  426 

387.  -The    election    of    President    Harrison.  —  388.  The    McKinley 
Tariff  Bill.  —  389.  The  opening  of  Oklahoma.  —  390.  Several  new 
Western  States  are  admitted:  Woman  suffrage.  —  391.  The  Pan- 
American  Congress. 

XLIV.  INDUSTRIAL  AND  INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION   .      .      .      .431 

392.  The  second  election  of  Cleveland;   the  Wilson  Tariff  Bill.  — 

393.  The  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago.  — 394.  The  panic  of  1893. 
—  395-  Railway  and  coal  strikes.  —  396.  International  arbitration. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

XLV.  THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR,  AND  TERRITORIAL  EXPANSION  : 

THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER  .       .      .      .       .       .  437 

397.  The  Dingley  Tariff.  —  398.  National  prosperity,  and  Greater 
New  York. —  399.  The  causes  of  our  war  with  Spain. — 400.  War  is 


CONTENTS  xiii 

declared.  —  401.  We  capture  the  Philippines.  —  402.  Objects  of  our 
campaign  in  Cuba.  —  403.  The  Spanish  are  driven  into  Santiago.  — 
404.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  is  destroyed;  the  war  ends.  —  405.  The 
cost  of  the  war.  —  406.  The  treaty  of  peace  and  the  territory  it 
brought  to  us.  —  407.  The  annexation  of  Hawaii  and  other  Pacific 
islands.  —  408.  We  become  a  world  power.  —  409.  The  Chinese 
Boxer  uprising  and  the  "open  door."  —  410.  The  Hague  Peace  Tri 
bunal. —  411.  The  establishment  of  a  gold  standard. — 412.  The 
Pan-American  Exposition.  —  413.  Assassination  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley. 

XLVI.   THE  PANAMA  CANAL:    CONSERVATION   OF  NATURAL    RE 
SOURCES:  THREE  IMPORTANT  LAWS        ......  454 

414.  The  Panama  Canal.  —  415.  A  cable  message  around  the 
world,  and  wireless  telegraphy.  —  416.  Roosevelt  as  a  peace-maker. 
417.  Our  battle  fleet  encircles  the  globe.  —  418.  Two  fires  and  an 
earthquake.  —  419.  Conservation,  and  the  "House  of  Governors." 
—  420.  Three  important  laws. 

XLVI  I.  TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION:  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  :  TAR 
IFF  AND  RECIPROCITY  :  THE  INSURGENT  MOVEMENT  .  .  464 

421.  William  Howard  Taft.  —  422.  The  tariff  is  revised.  —  423, 
The  Insurgents. — 424.  The  progressive  measures.  —  425.  Election 
reforms.  —  426.  Peace  and  reciprocity. — 427.  Mexico  in  trouble. 

—  428.   The   Forty-eighth    star.  —  429.  Labor   and    capital.  —  430. 
"Unscrambling"  the  trusts.  — 431.  The  Progressive  party. 

XLVI II.  WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  SINCE  THE 
CIVIL  WAR:  TARIFF,  TRUSTS,  AND  FINANCE:  THE  MONROE 
DOCTRINE 473 

432.  Woodrow  Wilson.  — 433.  Changes  in  Congress  and  the  Consti 
tution. —  434.  The  changing  world:  aircraft  and  motors.  — 435. 
Social  progress.  —  436.  What  the  people  thought.  —  437.  Shall 
women  vote?  —  438.  The  Underwood  tariff.  —  439.  The  federal 
reserve  banks.  —  440.  The  trusts  and  the  Federal  Trade  Commis 
sion.  —  441.  The  new  Monroe  Doctrine.  — 442.  The  Panama  Canal 
and  the  Exposition. 

XLIX.  WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  THE  WORLD  WAR:  THE  EURO 
PEAN  SYSTEM  AND  OURS  :  PROBLEMS  OF  NEUTRALITY  :  GER 
MAN  INTRIGUE 482 

443.  The  European  system  and  ours. — 444.  Prussia  —  445.  "  DerTag." 

—  446.  The  attack  on  Servia.  — 447.  Neutrality.  —  448.  Belgium.  — 
449.  The  future  of  peace.  —  450.  American  defense. — 451.  Machinery 
of  modern  war.  —  452.  The  submarine  as  a  weapon.  — 453.  Blockades 
and    neutrals.  —  454.    The    Lusitania.  —  455.   Preparedness.  —  456. 
The  navy  stands  ready.  —  457.  The  National  Defense  Act.  —  458. 
Intrigue  "and  sedition.  — 459.   Mexico.  —  460.  Villa  on  the  border.  — 
461.  The  Sussex.  —  462.  The  reelection  of  Wilson. — 4.63.  The  pro 
gram  of  peace.  —  464.  German  defiance. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

L.  WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  "A  WORLD  SAFE  FOR  DEMOCRACY": 

THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  WAR 496 

465.  War  against  Germany.  —  466.  The  destroyers  at  work.  —  467. 
The  appeal  of  Joffre.  —  468.  Pershing  in  France.  —  469.  Men.  — 
470.  Labor.  —  471.  National  labor  policy.  —  472.  Money.  —  473.  Food. 
—  474.  Ships.  —  475.  From  cantonments  to  the  base  in  France.  — 
476.  Russia:  delivered  and  betrayed. —  477.  The  appeal  to  democ 
racy.  —  478.  The  German  drive  of  1918.  — 479.  Pershing,  Foch,  and 
the  single  front.  —  480.  The  War  Cabinet.  —  481.  Chateau-Thierry 
and  the  Marne.  —  482.  Saint-Mihiel  and  the  Argonne. —  483.  The 
Armistice,  November  u,  1918. — 484.  President  Wilson  goes  to 
Paris.  —  485.  The  League  of  Nations.  —  486.  The  Death  of  Theodore 
Roosevelt.  —  487.  The  Eighteenth  Amendment.  488.  —  Problems  of 
Reconstruction. 

REVIEW,  AND  RECOMMENDED  READINGS    . 512 

SIGNIFICANT  DATES 516 

APPENDIX 

A.  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     .... 

B.  PRESIDENTS  AND  VICE-PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

C.  THE  STATES  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  ORIGIN                        .  xix 

D.  STATISTICS  OF  THE  STATES xx 

E.  TERRITORIAL  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES      ....  xxii 

F.  POPULATION xxiii 

INDEX  .  e  xxv 


MAPS 

THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 

Mediaeval  routes  of  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia .2 

The  world  as  known  before  the  voyage  of  Columbus 3 

fe  map  Columbus  used 7 

'The  four  voyages  of  Columbus .       .       .  13 

The  earliest  voyages  to  America  and  around  the  world     .       .       .       .       .21 

Map  showing  French  forts  and  portage  routes 35 

Distribution  of  the  Indian  tribes,  East  of  the  Mississippi  (colored]     .       .     40 

THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

Regions  open  to  London  and  Plymouth  Companies  .  .  .  -54 

The  Southern  colonies 71 

Homes  of  the  Pilgrims  and  their  route  to  America 76 

Settlements  on  the  New  England  coast 87 

Settlements  in  the  Connecticut  Valley 88 

Spanish,  English,  French  and  Dutch  claims  in  North  America  about 

1650  (colored)  .  ' 94 

Settlements  about  the  Hudson  River 98 

The  Middle  Colonies ...  99 

The  French  frontier  in  the  North     .       .       .       .       .       .       .  •     „       .       .122 

Spanish,  French  and  English  claims  in  North  America  about  1750 

(colored)  124 

North  America  after  the  peace  of  1763 132 

THE  REVOLUTION 

Boston,  Lexington,  Concord  and  vicinity 151 

The  field  of  war  during  the  Revolution  .       .       . 166 

The  campaign  of  George  Rogers  Clark 179 

THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 

The  United  States  in  1783,  with  the  conflicting  Western  claim  (colored)  .  192 
The  Northwest  Territory ,  196 

THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

The  United  States  before  1803  . 234 

The  United  States  after  1803 ....  235 

The  field  of  the  War  of  1812 245 

Areas  of  freedom  and  slavery  in  1820  (colored) .  260 

The  Texas-Mexican  frontier ,'  .  297 

Trails  to  the  West,  and  routes  of  the  principal  railroads  to  the  Pacific  .       .  299 


xvi  MAPS 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 

Areas  of  freedom  and  slavery  in  1854  (colored] 316 

The  United  States  in  1863,  showing  extent  of  the  Southern  Confederacy 

(colored)          342 

The  scene  of  war  near  Washington  and  Richmond    ......  350 

The  blockaded  Southern  coast .  352 

The  field  of  the  Western  Campaigns 368 

The  Chattanooga  Campaign 375 

THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 
Continental  Expansion  of  the  United  States  (colored] 392 

THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

Manila  Bay - 442 

The  Santiago  Campaign 443 

The  Caribbean  Region  (colored) 446 

The  United  States  and  its  possessions 449 

The  Panama  Canal  and  the  Canal  Zone 454 

The  Westward  Movement,  1790-1910 469 

Woman  Suffrage  in  the  United  States 478 

The  Berlin  to  Bagdad  Railway 486 

The  Eastern  Front 5°3 

The  Italian  Front 504 

The  Western  Front .  5°5 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

THE  GENERAL  USE  OF  THE  BOOK 

MANY  pupils  do  not  know  how  to  use  a  book  economically  or  intelli 
gently.  The  suggestion  is  accordingly  offered,  that  at  the  beginning 
teachers  and  pupils  together  make  an  examination  of  the  book.  There 
should  be  a  brief  discussion  of  the  purpose  and  use  of  the  table  of  con 
tents,  index,  pictures,  maps,  questions  and  directions  for  pupils,  lists  of 
books,  review  chapters,  material  in  the  appendix,  and  a  typical  chapter  of 
the  text. 

The  attention  of  the  class  should  be  called  to  the  Periods  into  which 
the  history  of  the  country  is  divided.  The  blackboard  may  be  used  to  in 
dicate  the  dates  of  each  Period,  the  pages  given  to  each  by  the  authors, 
and  the  significance  of  the  name  of  each  Period.  A  line  drawn  to  a  scale  on 
the  board,  with  different  colors  used  for  the  Periods,  may  represent  the  time 
which  has  elapsed  since  1492. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PUPILS 

It  is  believed  that  the  questions  and  suggestions  at  the  close  of  each 
chapter  are  such  as  —  first,  to  stimulate  thoughtful  reading  and  study; 
second,  to  suggest  good  methods  of  studying  and  profitable  topics  for  dis 
cussion;  third,  to  furnish  a  review  of  important  geographical  facts;  and 
fourth,  to  arouse  interest  in  the  problems  of  the  present.  The  questions 
have  not  been  framed  for  the  purpose  of  reviewing  facts  that  are  obvious 
from  the  text. 

Of  course  no  pupil  will  be  expected  to  answer  all  of  the  questions  or  to 
follow  all  of  the  directions.  Some  may  be  assigned  to  individual  pupils  who 
may  be  called  upon  to  report  to  the  class;  this  will  afford  good  material  for 
home  study  or  investigation. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

The  suggested  composition  subjects  may  be  used  either  as  a  part  of  the 
historical  work  or  as  an  exercise  in  English;  or  better  still,  as  a  correlation 
of  the  two.  Letter-writing  is  a  profitable  form  of  describing  events;  here  the 
imagination  may  be  employed  and  the  individuality  of  the  pupils  encour 
aged. 

DRAMATIZATION 

There  will  be  found  suggestions  for  dramatization;  this  is  one  of  the 
most  efficient  methods  of  vivifying  historical  facts.  Many  teachers  bear 
testimony  that  it  affords  means  of  arousing  interest  when  others  fail.  It  is 
natural  for  children  to  act  out  events ;  this  instinct  may  be  used  with  ad  van 


xx  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

Reviews  conducted  in  this  way  give  pupils  valuable  bird's-eye  views  of 
important  subjects  and  furnish  an  even  more  valuable  training  in  the  use 
of  books. 

A  list  of  the  maps  in  the  book  will  be  found  in  the  Index,  under  the  cap- 
"ion  "  Maps." 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES  AND  OUTSIDE  READING 

No  subject  in  the  schools  can  be  more  reinforced  by  wide  reading  than 
history.  The  books  and  titles  listed  under  "  Recommended  Readings," 
at  the  close  of.  each  Period,  have  been  carefully  selected  with  a  view  of 
being  serviceable  to  both  teachers  and  pupils.  It  will  be  observed  that 
fiction  and  poetry  find  a  place  therein.  It  is  not  assumed  that  the  teacher 
or  pupil  will  make  use  of  all  the  reading  suggested,  but  every  teacher  and 
pupil  should  use  some  of  it.  The  arrangement  of  the  lists  of  Recommended 
Readings  is,  under  "History  and  Biography,"  roughly,  (i)  source  books; 
(2)  general,  simple  works  covering  the  whole  field;  (3)  the  fuller  histories; 
(4)  the  standard  histories;  (5)  books  on  special  topics;  (6)  biography.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  recommendation  is  not  to  read  only  the  books 
listed  first,  but  to  proceed  to  varied  and  continued  reading  judiciously 
selected  from  the  whole  list.  The  arrangement  under  "Fiction"  and 
''Poetry"  is  alphabetical  by  authors. 

If  the  books  are  available,  outside  daily  or  weekly  reading  should  be  as 
signed;  in  this  way  pupils  acquire  the  habit  of  using  books  —  not  an  unim 
portant  consideration.  They  also  get  another  point  of  view  from  that  of 
the  authors  of  the  text-book,  and  interest  is  added  to  the  recitation  be 
cause  of  the  variety  of  views  presented.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to 
read  widely;  the  more  they  saturate  themselves  with  history,  the  better. 
The  teacher  will  be  repaid  if  she  takes  time  to  train  children  in  the  use  of 
Tables  of  Contents  and  of  Indexes. 

Teachers  are  urged  to  read  to  the  class  short  extracts  —  episodes,  inci 
dents,  etc.,  from  such  historians  as  Parkman,  Fiske,  Rhodes,  Winsor  —  as 
a  means  of  arousing  interest  in  outside  reading  and  to  cultivate  a  taste  for 
history.  Stevenson1 's  Poems  of  American  History  is  a  serviceable  anthology 
which  will  be  found  to  contain  most  of  the  poems  recommended  for 
reading. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

"Merely  looking  at  pictures  is  not  studying  them.  They  cannot  be  seen 
as  a  whole.  They  must  be  analyzed.  Have  a  definite  plan  for  studying  each 
illustration.  Do  not  merely  tack  one  bit  of  information  on  to  another. 
Observe  how  the  teacher  of  English  develops  a  description.  A  proper 
use  of  illustrations  in  history  should  help  materially  the  work  in  English 
in  more  ways  than  one.  The  pupil  should  grow  rapidly  in  his  ability 
to  analyze  quickly  and  interpret  correctly  maps,  drawings,  and  other 
illustrations  met  elsewhere."  l 

Teachers  should  encourage  pupils  to  find  illustrations  in  other  histories 
and  in  magazines,  to  supplement  those  in  this  book.  It  will  prove  conven 
ient  in  future  work,  if  notes  are  kept  of  the  most  helpful  of  these  sources. 

1  From  American  History  to  1763  :  A  Catalogue  of  Slides  and  Photographs  with  Study  Notes, 
New  York  State  Education  Department,  Division  of  Visual  Instruction,  Albany.  New  York,  1911. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  xxi 

The  use  of  drawings,  approximately  correct,  on  the  blackboard  is  in 
valuable;  for  example,  a  lock  on  the  Erie  Canal;  the  Eads  Jetties;  or  the 
Monitor  and  its  revolving  turret. 

Notes  on  the  Full-Page  Illustrations 

Columbus  at  the  Court  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  (Brozik.)  Facing  page  I, 
"Study  the  figure  and  bearing  of  Columbus.  Observe  the  close  attention 
given  by  the  Queen  and  others  to  what  is  being  said.  The  Queen's  ad 
visers,  several  of  whom  are  present  at  this  conference,  were  beginning  to 
favor  the  idea  of  Columbus,  and  some  of  them  frankly  advised  the  Queen 
to  authorize  the  expedition.  Observe  that  Ferdinand  does  not  appear  in 

tthis  picture.  He  was  at  no  time  as  favorable  to  the  idea  as  was  Isabella. 
On  the  table  and  in  the  hands  of  an  attendant  are  jewels,  which,  accord 
ing  to  an  oft-repeated  story,  the  Queen  pledged  for  the  expense  of  the 
voyage  —  a  story  not  resting  on  contemporary  evidence,  and  one  that  is 
extremely  improbable,  still  one  that  illustrates  well  the  interest  of  the 
Queen.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Queen  was  completely  won 
over  to  the  cause  of  Columbus,  the  conference  was  broken  up  without 
any  favorable  action.  The  terms  offered  by  Columbus  were  not  accepted, 
and  for  a  third  time  he  determined  to  seek  aid  in  a  foreign  land."  1 

The  Declaration  of  Independence.    (Trumbull.)   Page  150. 

The  scene  is  the  hall  of  the  Continental  Congress,  in  Independence  Hall, 
Philadelphia,  as  it  was  at  the  time.  John  Hancock,  President  of  the  Con 
gress,  is  seated  at  the  table,  and  in  front  of  him  stand  the  Committee  of 
Five  selected  to  draft  the  Declaration,  —  John  Adams.  Roger  Sherman, 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  Benjamin  Franklin.  Note 
the  earnest  dignity  of  all  the  participants.  It  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  that 
they  realize  the  far-reaching  importance  of  their  act.  On  the  day  of  sign 
ing  John  Adams  wrote:  "  I  am  apt  to  believe  that  it  will  be  celebrated  by 
succeeding  generations  as  the  great  anniversary  festival.  It  ought  to  be 
commemorated  as  the  day  of  deliverance,  by  solemn  acts  of  devotion 
to  God  Almighty.  It  ought  to  be  solemnized  with  pomp  and  parade,  with 
shows,  games,  sports,  guns,  bells,  bonfires,  and  illuminations,  from  one 
end  of  this  continent  to  the  other,  from  this  time  forward,  forevermore." 
After  Congress  passed  the  Declaration  it  was  "  Resolved,  that  copies  of  the 
Declaration  be  sent  to  the  several  assemblies,  conventions,  and  committees 
or  councils  of  safety,  and  to  the  several  commanding  officers  of  the  Conti 
nental  troops;  that  it  be  proclaimed  in  each  of  the  United  States,  and  at 
the  head  of  the  army."  The  resulting  public  celebrations  in  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  and  throughout  the  country  showed  the  jubilation  of  the 
people  over  the  event. 

The  Fiftieth  Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  Bull  Run.  July  21,  19-11.  (Photo 
graph.)   Page  349. 

This  occasion  was  probably  the  first  instance  in  history  where  sur 
vivors  of  both  sides  in  a  battle  met  and  exchanged  friendly  greetings  ^on 
the  same  field  fifty  years  after  the  day  of  actual  combat.  The  illustration 

1  From  American  History  to  1763. 


xxii  SUGGESTIONS   TO  TEACHERS 

shows  the  Union  veterans  on  the  right,  and  the  Confederates,  under  a  flag 
bearing  the  Virginia  coat  of  arms,  on  the  left.  The  troops  in  the  middle  dis 
tance  are  United  States  cavalry  and  Virginia  militia.  Under  the  trees  in 
the  background,  planted  in  1865  by  soldiers  of  the  Army  of  th<*Potomac, 
around  a  rude  monument  then  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  comrades  who 
fell  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  public  exercises  of  welcome  were  held 
just  previous  to  the  scene  here  shown.  Later,  in  the  town  of  Manassas, 
President  Taft  and  the  Governor  of  Virginia  addressed  the  veterans  of 
the  two  armies,  some  six  hundred  in  number.  By  an  interesting  coinci 
dence  the  Union  veteran  who  originated  this  semi-centennial  anniver 
sary  was,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  the  signal  officer  of  Sherman's  army 
at  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  who,  on  April  26,  1865,  sent  the  last  signal 
message  of  the  Civil  War  —  "  Peace  and  Good -Will." 

The  Completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Central  Pacific  Railroads 

Page  402. 

The  first  transcontinental  rail.line  was  completed  by  the  meetingof  the 
tracks  of  the  Union  Pacific  and  of  the  Central  Pacific  on  the  Northern 
shore  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  (at  Promontory  Point,  Utah).  While  the 
final  spike  was  being  driven  home,  —  this  being  reported  by  telegraph, 
—  corresponding  blows  were  struck  on  the  bell  of  the  city  hall  in  San 
Francisco,  and  at  the  last  blow  a  cannon  was  fired.  There  were  also  cele 
brations  in  Omaha,  Chicago,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  other  large 
cities.  Bret  Harte's  poem,  "What  the  Engines  Said,"  was  written  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  event.  All  these  points  show  that  the  people  fore 
saw  the  immense  value  of  the  new  railroad  to  the  West.  The  route  of  the 
railroad  followed  quite  closely  the  trail  used  successively  by  Indians,  fur 
traders,  and  emigrants  to  California  and  Oregon.  During  the  construc 
tion  of  the  road  there  were  frequent  attacks  by  Indians,  and  Government 
troops  protected  the  builders.  When  first  projected,  the  scheme  of  a 
railroad  to  the  Pacific  had  been  called  nonsense;  but  in  1857  President 
Buchanan  advocated  it  as  a  means  of  holding  the  Pacific  Coast  people  in 
the  Union;  it  was  this  sentiment  that  led  to  the  name  Union  Pacific. 
Note  that  an  undertaking  originally  looked  upon  in  this  light,  and  even 
perhaps  as  a  military  necessity,  is  now  regarded  as  a  great  commercial 
highway. 

THE  RELATION  OF  HISTORY  AND  GEOGRAPHY 

It  may  not  be  necessary  here  to  emphasize  the  intimate  relation  between 
history  and  geography;  for  teachers  of  history  increasingly  recognize,  in 
their  schoolroom  practice,  the  influence  of  geography  on  human  affairs.  In 
the  expanding  demands  upon  the  schools,  it  is  becoming  more  and  more 
necessary  to  economize  in  the  teaching  process.  The  review  of  geographi 
cal  facts  from  the  study  of  history  is  one  means  of  practicing  this  economy. 
Wall  maps  and  globes  should  therefore  be  in  constant  use,  both  while  the 
pupil  is  preparing  his  lesson  and  in  the  recitations.  Rapid  blackboard  map- 
sketching  by  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged ;  pupils  acquire  facility  therein 
if  teachers  require  it.  It  adds  interest  to  the  class  work;  it  aids  in  making 
clear  historical  causes  and  effects;  and  it  affords  opportunity  to  use  the 
pupil's  skill  in  drawing. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO  TEACHERS  xxiii 

The  use  of  the  so-called  prepared,  progressive  maps  is  a  good  means 
of  showing  the  influence  of  geography  upon  history;  but  a  better  plan  still 
is  to  have^he  pupils  make  their  own  progressive  maps.  Important  details 
may  be  filled  in  as  the  study  progresses.  In  this  way,  numerous  series  of 
historical  facts  may  be  consecutively  treated.  Sufficient  examples  are  suc 
cessive  settlements  of  the  several  original  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
annexations  of  territory,  Western  explorations,  and  campaigns  of  the  Civil 
War. 

MAPS 

"It  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  understanding  of  history  that  the 
;eography  of  the  sections  under  consideration  be  known.  Many  of  the 

aps  are  for  use  not  once  merely,  but  can  with  profit  be  referred  to  often. 

fter  studying  a  picture  of  an  object  or  event,  its  location  should  be  fixed 
in  mind  by  reference  to  the  map.  After  studying  a  small  sectional  map, 
drawn  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  specially  desirable  that  the  small  section  be 
located  on  a  map  representing  a  larger  area,  in  order  that  a  true  concep 
tion  may  be  gained  of  relative  positions  and  approximate  distances."  1 

How  TO  TEACH  HISTORY  BY  PERIODS 

Aside  from  the  careful  study  of  a  few  of  the  greatest  discoverers  and 
explorers  (Columbus,  Magellan,  the  Cabots,  Hudson,  Marquette,  and 
Th  P  riod  ^a  Salle),  not  mucri  time  should  be  taken  for  this  first  Period, 
f  Discovery  •  ^  pupils  learn  to  picture  to  themselves  as  vividly  as  possible 
Ch  t  L-V  t*ie  actua^  experiences  and  difficulties  of  typical  explorers, 
this  whole  movement  for  the  exploration  of  unknown  lands 
will  be  clear.  Let  them  realize  that  this  universal  instinct  for  finding  the 
unknown  not  only  made  possible  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  the  New 
World  in  the  days  of  old,  but  in  recent  times  has  led  to  the  exploration  of 
the  wilds  of  interior  Africa,  the  penetration  of "  forbidden  lands  "  in  central 
Asia,  and  the  discovery  of  the  North  and  South  Poles. 

Appeal  constantly  to  the  imagination  of  pupils:  lead  them  to  picture  the 
conditions  in  Europe  that  induced  sovereigns  to  favor  and  finance  these 
early  expeditions  of  discovery;  the  courageous  figures  that  led  them;  the 
meager  equipment  of  vessels  and  supplies  that  made  such  voyages  heroic 
achievements;  the  wild,  picturesque  shores  and  the  silent  wilderness  that 
the  explorers  found  here;  the  hardships  and  perils  that  they  encountered, 
and  the  life  and  ways  of  the  red  men,  who  at  first  befriended  and  then 
fought  them. 

Special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  study  of  the  typical  colonies 
of  Virginia  and  Massachusetts.  A  careful  reading  of  the  history  of 
The  Period  t^ie  other  colom'es.  followed  by  class  discussion  to  bring  out 
Of  c  i  .  salient  points  of  likeness  and  contrast,  will  usually  suffice. 
tion-  Ch^*'  ^e  c^m  °f  l°cal  history,  however,  will  make  it  advisable 
ter  VI  XII  to  study  *n  some  detail  the  colony  in  which  the  pupils  are 
the  most  interested  because  of  their  residence. 

In  this  study,  pupils  should  picture  the  conditions  in  Europe  that  led  to 

1  Frota  American  History  to  1763. 


xxiv  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

the  planting  of  the  several  colonies.  Have  pupils  compare  the  character  and 
motives  of  the  settlers  in  the  different  localities,  and  thus  account  for  the 
success  or  failure  of  each  enterprise.  They  should  observe  how  the  char 
acteristics  of  a  single  leader  —  for  example,  John  Smith,  Lord  Baltimore, 
or  Penn  —  often  affected  the  entire  history  of  a  colony.  Especially  should 
they  observe  the  increasing  impatience  of  the  colonists  with  the  absolute 
control  of  monarchs  and  proprietary  companies,  and  the  growing  desire  for 
popular  self-government,  that  ultimately  brought  about  the  Revolution. 

Pupils  should  be  able  to  state  the  principal  causes  of  the  war.  They  should 
be  made  to  see  that  many  people  in  England  deprecated  the  oppressive 
and  unjust  treatment  of  the  colonists.    This  treatment  was    Th  R 
largely  due  to  a  few  officials  in  the  motherland  who  had    ..  e .  ®™ 
great  power;  of  these,  George  III  was  chief.  . 

Pupils  should  fully  realize  that  the  great  mass  of  the   XVI 
colonists  were  either  English  or  of  English  descent,  and  that    ' 
the  war  was  an  unnatural  one,  for  England  was  the  mother  country. 

The  campaigns  in  the  North,  the  Middle  States,  and  the  South  can  best 
be  understood  by  the  constant  use  of  maps.  The  general  plans  and  purposes 
of  these  campaigns  should  be  comprehended,  but  most  of  the  details  may  be 
quickly  passed  over.  The  masterly  generalship  of  Washington,  in  the  face 
of  the  greatest  difficulties  and  discouragements,  the  patriotism  and  devo 
tion  of  our  ancestors  who  were  fighting  for  a  principle,  and  the  aid  received 
by  them  from  France,  should  be  clearly  demonstrated.  The  important 
results  of  the  war,  both  to  America  and  to  England,  should  be  clearly 
brought  out. 

The  successive  steps  leading  to  the  formation  of  the  Union  should  be 
reviewed,  —  the  New  England  Confederacy,  the  Albany  Convention,  the 
Stamp  Act,  the  First  Continental  Congress,  the  Second  Con-    The  Forma. 
tinental  Congress,  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence    tionofthe" 
(use  the  Index  in  the  study. of  these  topics).    Each  step 
marked  a  growth  away  from  the  mother  country  and  an 
advance  toward  self-government.    This  Period  should  be 
studied  from  the  point  of  view  that  their  experiences  when 
under  English  rule  gave  rise  to  a  strong  fear  of  tyranny  in  the  colonies, 
and  that  love  for  their  local  self-government  led  the  States  to  adopt  the 
Articles  of  Confederation. 

The  weakness  of  the  Articles  should  be  dwelt  upon,  so  that  pupils 
may  understand  why  there  was  a  need  for  calling  a  Convention  to  frame  a 
new  code  of  laws  to  remedy  these  defects.  It  is  important  for  the  pupils 
to  trace  the  results  that  followed  the  weakness  of  the  Articles  of  Confed 
eration.  This  will  help  them  to  see  the  relationship  between  cause  and 
effect ;  the  power  to  do  this  should  be  one  of  the  results  of  history  study. 
Moreover,  this  study  will  throw  light  on  the  discussion  of  present-day 
problems. 

Emphasize  the  fact  that  this  was  a  critical  period.  Point  out  the  dif 
ficulties  that  faced  the  Constitutional  Convention,  and  bring  out  the  idea 
that  only  by  a  series  of  compromises  was  the  Constitution  framed. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  xxv 

The  Constitution  (see  Appendix  A,  pages  xi-xxvii)  should  be  read  anc* 
explained  while  this  Period  is  being  studied. 

Pupils  should  at  the  outset  have  a  mental  picture  of  the  country  ovefr 
which  Washington  was  called  to  act  as  President.  The  difficulties  which 
Th  P  i  d  confronted  the  young  nation  should  be  emphasized,  and  it 
al  should  be  shown  how  these  were  overcome  by  the  wise  states- 
o  a  loni  rnanshipof  Washington,  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  and  Jay.  Show 
Ch  -  k°w  tne  fundamental  necessity  for  revenue  to  maintain  the 
'  Government  was  met;  show  the  need  of  establishing  the 

XXXIIl"  power  of  the  central  Government;  and  show  that  the  fear  of 

such  power  found  expression  in  the  Whiskey  Rebellion,  in 
the  protest  against  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  and  in  the  Hartford 
Convention. 

This  is  an  opportune  time  to  teach  that  the  Supreme  Court  decides 
whether  laws  passed  by  Congress  are  constitutional  or  not. 

Not  the  least  of  the  problems  confronting  the  nation  was  that  of  our  re 
lations  to  England  and  France.  The  culmination  of  this  series  of  events 
was  the  War  of  1812,  the  causes  and  results  of  which  should  clearly  be  de 
fined  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Discuss  with  pupils  the  improbability  of 
serious  difficulties  with  these  countries  ever  again  arising. 

Pupils  should  realize  that  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  was  one  of  the  great 
events  in  the  history  of  the  country.  Show  how  the  steamboat,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  National  Road  prepared  the  way  for  W7estern  settlement. 

Beginning  with  this  Period  the  material  in  Appendices  B,  C,  D,  E, 
and  F  should  constantly  be  used  in  connection  with  the  text.  Let  the  pupils 
report  on  the  number  of  States  in  the  Union  at  various  periods,  the  extent 
of  territory,  the  population  of  the  country,  etc. 

Show  how  the  disputes  that  arose  during  this  Period  were  the  natural 
result  of  the  development  of  the  country.  The  rise  and  increase  of  manu 
factures  led  to  disagreements  concerning  the  tariff.  The  great  wave  ot 
westward  migration  following  the  War  of  1812  led  to  the  demand  for  easy 
and  cheap  means  of  transportation  between  East  and  West,  which  caused 
differences  of  opinion  concerning  internal  improvements  at  government 
expense.  Westward  migration  eventually  resulted  in  the  admission  of  new 
States  to  the  Union,  and  this  gave  rise  to  disputes  as  to  whether  slavery 
would  be  permitted  in  them- 

Make  clear  that  the  difference  in  opinion  between  the  North  and  the 
South  on  these  great  questions  of  the  day,  was  largely  due  to  dissimilarity 
in  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  two  sections.  It  is  profitable  for  the  pupils  to 
trace  the  effects  of  this  dissimilarity  in  the  various  acts  and  events  of  the 
Period,  culminating  as  it  did  in  the  Civil  War.  The  part  taken  by  promi 
nent  leaders  on  each  side  should  be  clearly  brought  out. 

Pupils  should  make  a  list  of  reasons  why  the  South  fell  behind  the 
The  Civil  North  in  immigration,  in  population,  and  in  various  lines 

War -Chan-  °*  mc^ustrial  activity.  They  should  see  that  the  Civil  War 
ters  XXXIV-  was  not  ^ouSnt  merely  to  stop  slavery,  but  primarily  to  pre- 
XXXVII  serve  the  Union.  Previous  pages  in  the  text,  and  extracts 

from  speeches  of  Lincoln  and  other  statesmen,  should  em- 


xxvi  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

phasize  this  fact.  It  would  be  interesting  and  profitable  to  study  the  war 
through  a  somewhat  detailed  survey  of  the  life  of  Lincoln. 

If  pupils  have  understood  how  the  two  sections  differed  in  occupations, 
in  the  use  of  free  and  slave  labor,  and  in  economic  and  social  conditions, 
they  will  be  able  intelligently  to  discuss  the  advantages  and  the  disad 
vantages  of  North  and  South,  and  the  course  of  events  during  the  war. 

Details  of  military  movements  may  be  avoided.  Much  of  the  text 
can  profitably  be  read  with  the  pupils,  emphasizing  the  influence  of  topo 
graphy.  Great  battlefields  should  be  located  and  a  single  battle,  like 
Gettysburg,  studied  in  some  detail  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  heroism, 
the  horror,  and  the  awful  destruction  of  the  war.  The  invasions  of  the 
North  should  be  noted.  A  somewhat  comprehensive  study  of  the  history 
of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  should  be  made;  this  will  bring  out 
the  attitude  toward  us  of  foreign  countries. 

The  teacher  should  aim  to  be  absolutely  fair  and  impartial  as  she  teaches 
the  topics  regarding  slavery  and  the  Civil  War.  Pupils  should  be  able  to 
state  clearly  the  questions  settled  by  the  war. 

Make  a  study  of  the  North  and  the  South  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and 
contrast  the  two  sections.    Show  how  "the  New  South"  has   developed 
since  the  struggle.  Difficulties  that  faced  the  President  and    _,     p    . 
Congress   in  regard    to  reconstruction   should   be  brought      ~  N     . 
out.  The  period  of  reconstruction  is  quite  difficult  for  pupils    °x    a  1?na 

to  understand,  and  it  is  helpful  to  work  on  this  topic  with    , 

1  lie  United 


i       i 

books  open.  States 

°r        °^ 


a 

Show  the  various  ways  in  which  the  Government   has 


aided  industry,  commerce,  and  emigration.    Examples  dis- 

cussed  in  the  text  —  the  Homestead  Act,  the  Reclamation 

Service,  River  and  Harbor  Bill,  grants  of  land  to  railways, 

the  Interstate  Commerce  Law,  Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act,  Department  of 

Commerce  and  Labor,  etc. 

The  marvelous  growth  of  the  West  and  the  causes  of  this  expansion 
should  be  clearly  defined. 

The  cause,  chief  events,  and  results  of  the  Spanish-American  War  should 
be  understood  by  pupils.  Particularly  should  our  aims  in  the  World  War 
be  made  clear  to  them. 

Pupils  should  think  and  reason  and  express  themselves  upon  such  modern 
questions  as  our  foreign  possessions,  civil  service  reform,  labor  and  capi 
tal,  tariff,  territorial  expansion,  our  relations  with  foreign  nations,  educa 
tion  in  a'republic,  our  great  inventions,  conservation,  regulation  of  public 
utilities,  methods  of  taxation,  and  immigration. 

They  must  be  made  to  realize  that  many  of  the  great  national  prob 
lems  of  this  Period  are  as  yet  unsolved,  and  that  the  responsibility  of 
dealing  with  these  matters  will  fall  upon  them,  as  they  become  citizens  of 
the  Republic. 


A  HISTORY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES  ">^X:^;;;T 

THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  STORY  OF    COLUMBUS 

i.  Early  trade  with  the  Orient.  In  the  middle  of  the  fif« 
teenth  century,  when  Christopher  Columbus  was  a  boy 
living  in  the  large  and  busy  seaport  of  Genoa,  Italy,  the 
richest  countries  in  Europe  were  those  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  seas — Italy,  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal.  These  countries  had  grown  rich  largely  through 
their  commerce  with  the  East.  For  centuries,  merchants  in 
the  prosperous  cities  of  southern  Europe  had  carried  on  a 
large  trade  with  Persia,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  other 
countries  of  Asia  —  that  vast  region  being  then  variously 
called  the  Indies,  the  Orient,  or  the  East.1 

Fleets  of  ships,  laden  with  lumber,  metals,  and  heavy 
manufactured  goods,  destined  for  the  Indies,  were  contin 
ually  sailing  from  European  ports.  Some  of  them  went 
to  Alexandria,  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  whence  the  goods 
were  carried  over  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
thence  by  vessels  direct  to  Asia.  Other  ships  went  by  way 
of  Constantinople  to  ports  on  the  Black  S.ea.  Here,  cargoes 
were  loaded  on  the  backs  of  camels  and  horses.  Long  and 

1  This  commerce  was  one  of  the  important  results  of  the  Crusades.  The 
Crusades  were  expeditions  of  thousands  of  Christian  men  from  western  Europe, 
who  in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries  made  several  partly  suc 
cessful  attempts  to  capture  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Turks  and  Saracens.  These 
expeditions  cost  enormously  in  life  and  treasure;  but  they  were  the  means  of 
bringing  into  Europe  a  knowledge  of  new  peoples,  countries,  ideas,  and  customs, 
and  were  therefore  of  far-reaching  benefit. 


2  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

picturesque  caravans  of  these  animals,  guided  by  drivers 
in  the  strange  costumes  of  the  Orient,  slowly  journeyed 
across  the  Asiatip  :mountains,  deserts,  and  plains,  to  the 
far-off  mercKaVits:.of  the  Indies.  The  same  caravans  and 
ships.  Jpjo.ught  back'tp  Europe  the  products  of  Asia - 
i^ry,;  precious-  stones*,  gold  and  silver  jewelry,  silks,  per 
fumes,  and  spices.  Thus  Europeans  obtained  many  com 
forts  and  luxuries  which  they  could  not  otherwise  have  had. 


J¥ort7te>7i  Route 

Vaed^by  Genoa 

Middle  Route 

Souffiem  Route .++*.+•+ 

Used  by  Venice 


MEDIAEVAL   ROUTES   OF   TRADE   BETWEEN   EUROPE  AND   ASIA 

This  commerce  with  the  Indies  employed  thousands  of  men 
on  land  and  sea;  it  greatly  enriched  the  cities  engaged  in 
it,  and  European  merchants  regarded  it  as  the  most  im 
portant  business  in  the  world. 

2.  The  trade  with  the  Orient  is  interrupted.  But  in  1453, 
when  Columbus  was  perhaps  six  or  seven  years  old,  there 
occurred  an  event  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  warlike 
Turks,  who  were  Mohammedans,  and  hostile  to  Christians, 
captured  much  of  the  eastern  country  crossed  by  the  traders, 
and  after  this  robbed  the  European  caravans  or  forbade 
them  the  right  to  pass  through  their  lands.  The  people 
of  southern  Europe  were  thoroughly  aroused  by  this  great 


THE  STORY   OF   COLUMBUS  3 

calamity  and  declared  that  a  new  way,  wholly  by  sea,  must 
be  found  by  which  to  reach  the  Indies. 

3.  Barriers  to  ocean  navigation.  However,  the  finding 
of  a  new  water  route  to  Asia  proved  in  those  days  to  be  a 
very  difficult  undertaking.  There  were  several  reasons  for 
this:- 

(a)  Ideas  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  earth.  Although 
the  people  of  southern  Europe  were  then  the  most  intel 
ligent  and  best  educated  in  the  world,  they  had  no  idea 


THE  WORLD  AS  KNOWN  BEFORE  THE  VOYAGE  OF  COLUMBUS 

how  large  the  earth  really  is.  Besides  their  own  continent, 
they  knew  of  but  two  others,  Asia  and  Africa;  and  their 
knowledge  of  these  was  very  slight.  As  for  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  it  was  as  yet  a  great  uncharted  sea.  Moreover,  few 
people  had  come  to  realize  that  the  earth  is  a  great  sphere 
whirling  in  space;  instead,  most  of  them  thought  that  it 
was  exactly  what  any  part  of  it  seems  to  be  —  a  great, 
immovable  plain.  What  was  beyond  the  edges  of  this  plain, 
probably  they  did  not  dare  even  to  imagine.  To  be  sure, 
hundreds  of  years  before  this  time,  learned  scientists  like 
Aristotle  and  Ptolemy  had  declared  their  belief  that  the  earth 
was  round;  but  in  the  boyhood  of  Columbus,  only  a  few  of 


4  THE  PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

the  more  thoughtful  and  intelligent  men  had  come  to  accept 
what  every  child  is  now  taught  as  one  of  his  first  lessons  in 
geography. 

(b)  Fear  of  the  ocean.    With  these  mistaken  ideas  about 
the  world,  it  is  not  strange  that  most  of  the  sailors  on  the 
Mediterranean   had   extravagant   fears   and    superstitions 
about  the  Atlantic.  To  them  it  was  the  "  Sea  of  Darkness." 
They  firmly  believed  that  it  could  not  be  navigated  at  a 
great  distance  from  shore,  because  of  violent  storms,  mys 
terious  winds  and  currents,  whirlpools  that  would  swal 
low  ships,  monster  sea-serpents,  and  other  horrible  things 
that  would'  allow  neither  men  nor  vessels  to  return  in 
safety. 

(c)  Smallness  of  ships.    There  was  still  another  serious 
obstacle  to  the  navigation  of  the  Atlantic.   The  sailing  ves 
sels  of  Columbus's  day  were  tiny  affairs  compared  with  the 
monster  steamships  in  which  we  now  cross  the  great  seas, 
and  they  had  very  few  of  the  guides  and  helps  to  navigation 
with  which  we  are  familiar.    The  marvel  is  that  men  ven 
tured  out  in  such  vessels  at  all,  even  upon  the  Mediterra 
nean.    As  for  navigating  the  great  and  boisterous  Atlantic, 
few  sailors  in  our  time  would  dare  cross  the  ocean  in  a  ship 
like  the  best  of  those  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

4.  Portuguese  discoveries.  Nevertheless,  while  the  ma 
jority  of  sailors  continued  to  be  afraid  of  the  "  Sea  of  Dark 
ness,"  the  bolder  spirits  among  them  sometimes  ventured 
to  sail  upon  it,  and  gradually  became  more  fearless.  The 
most  enterprising  of  all  were  the  Portuguese,  who  began 
quite  early  to  make  long  journeys  southward  along  the 
African  coast,  and  thus  discovered  the  Azores,  the  Madeira, 
the  Canary,  and  the  Cape  Verd  Islands. 

After  the  closing  of  the  overland  routes  to  Asia  by  the 
quarrelsome  Turks,  Portugal  was  foremost  among  those 
countries  that  sought  to  find  the  coveted  sea  route  to  the 
Orient.  Finally,  in  1487,  five  years  before  the  great  voyage 
of  Columbus  into  the  West,  Bartholomeu  Dias,  of  that 
country,  discovered  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  southern- 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS 


most  point  of  Africa;1  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that 
a  brother  of  Columbus  was  a  member  of  that  famous  ex 
pedition. 

5.  Increasing  interest  in  exploration.  These  daring  achieve 
ments  of  the  Portuguese  were  gradually,  but  surely,  changing 
public  opinion  about  the  dangers  of  the  unknown  Atlantic ; 
and,  together  with  the  pressing  need  for  new  routes  to  Asia, 
they  helped  to  arouse  in  the  more  enterprising  class  of  Eu 
ropeans  a  keener  interest  than  ever  be 
fore  in  exploration.  But  there  were  also 
other  reasons  why  such  men  were  now 
seeking  information  about  strange  parts 
of  the  world :  — 

(a)  Four  great  inventions.    Four  great 
inventions  were  now  coming  into  gen 
eral  use  in  Europe  —  the  pnnting-^ress, 
the   mariner's   compass,  the   astrolabe, 
and  gunpowder. 2    Through  the  printing 
of  books  of  travel,  people  could  learn 
abcut    habitable    lands   heretofore   un 
known  to  them.  With  the  compass,  mar 
iners  could  for  the  first  time  safely  ven 
ture  far  into  the  sea,  out  of  sight  of  land ; 
and  with  the  astrolabe,  an  instrument 
for  ascertaining  position  through  refer 
ence  to  the  stars,  they  could  determine 
latitude   and   longitude    in    mid-ocean; 

while  gunpowder  made  it  easy -to  conquer  peoples  who 
did  not  have  fire-arms. 

(b)  Belief  in  a  sea  east  of  Asia.  Among  the  more  keen- 
minded  of  the  navigators  of  the  day,  a  belief  was  growing 

1  The  Portuguese  did  not  reach  India,  however,  until  1498. 

2  It  is  supposed  that  the  Chinese  invented  movable  types  as  early  as  the 
tenth  century  A.D.;  and  many  think  that  gunpowder  was  made  by  both  Hindus 
and  Chinese  long  before  it  became  known  to  Europeans  in  the  thirteenth  cen 
tury.   The  compass  may  have  been  used  by  Chinese  long  before  the  Christian 
era.    Although  known  as  early  as  the  second  century  B.C.,  the  astrolabe  was  per 
fected  by  Portuguese  scientists  while  Columbus  was  still  a  boy;  better  instru 
ments,  however,  have  since  taken  its  place. 


Copyright,  Harris  and  Ewing 

COLUMBUS 


A  statue  by  Lorado  Taft,  in 
Washington,  D.  C. 


6  THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 

that  the  Indies  might  be  reached  by  sailing  directly  west 
ward.  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian  traveler  of  the  thirteenth 
century,1  had  written  a  book  about  his  travels  in  the  Far 
East,  in  which  he  had  told  of  a  sea  lying  east  of  Asia;  and 
although  few  people  fully  accepted  his  story,  it  had  caused 
some  of  the  best  geographers  and  navigators  of  Columbus's 
day  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  such  a  sea. 

6.  Columbus  in  Portugal.    Among   these   shrewd  and 
thoughtful  men  was  Christopher  Columbus.2    He  became 
satisfied  that  the  earth  is  round,  and  thought  that  the  west 
ern  ocean  must  surely  offer  a  short,  direct  highway  to  the 
Indies.    While  still  a  young  man,  Columbus  was  attracted 
by  Portugal's  fame  in  matters  connected  with  exploration, 
and  went  to  Lisbon,  where  he  earned  his  living  as  a  map- 
maker.    Here  he  met  and  talked  with  the  most  skillful  geo 
graphers  and  navigators  of  the  age,  whose  beliefs  regarding 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth  were  much  like  his  own. 
From  Portugal,  too,  he  sailed  on  several  long  voyages  over 
the  Atlantic  —  southward  to  the  equator,  and  again  far 
into  the  northern  sea  to  Iceland.3 

7.  Columbus  decides  to  make  a  voyage  into  the  West. 
The  Atlantic,  therefore,  had  no  terrors  for  Columbus,  and 
a  daring  scheme  for  making  a  voyage  into  the  West  in  search 

1  Marco  Polo  was  the  most  famous  traveler  in  his  day.   He  traversed  a  large 
part  of  Asia  and  spent  many  years  in  China.  His  remarkable  book  is  well  worth 
reading,  for  much  of  what  he  wrote  is  a  true  and  vivid  account  of  Asiatic  men 
and  things  as  they  were  in  the  thirteenth  century.    Most  Europeans  of  those 
times,  however,  thought  that  his  tales  were  merely  inventions. 

2  It  is  not  certain  just  when  Columbus  was  born,  but  probably  in  1446  or 
1447.    Little  is  known  about  his  family  or  his  early  boyhood,  except  that  his 
father  was  a  weaver.  When  some  fourteen  years  old,  he  became  a  sailor,  and 
for  several  years  had  many  wild  and  daring  adventures  on  the  Mediterranean, 
for  in  those  days  the  fleets  of  rival  cities  were  often  at  war  with  each  other.    In 
this  rough  school  of  adventure,  young  Columbus  quickly  developed  into  a 
fearless  navigator. 

3  Norwegians  first  settled  Iceland  about  870.   Some  of  the  Icelandic  Norwe 
gians  settled  Greenland  in  986.  About  the  year  1000,  some  of  their  descendants, 
under  Leif  Ericson,  planted  a  colony  on  the  North  American  continent,  prob 
ably  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  called  it  Vinland  (or  wine-land),  because  of  the  wild 
grapes  found  there.    This  settlement   lasted  for  a  long  time,  but  was  always 
weak  and  at  last  was  abandoned.    Columbus  probably  heard  nothing  of  this 
when  he  was  in  Iceland. 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS  7 

of  the  Indies  took  final  shape  in  his  mind.  In  making  his 
calculations,  however,  he  had  figured  that  the  earth  was  a 
third  smaller  than  it  is;  that  it  contained  more  land  than 
water;  and  that  the  island  of  Japan  lay  about  where  the 
West  Indies  are.  This  was  a  fortunate  mistake ;  for  if  Co 
lumbus  had  not  expected  to  discover  a  shorter  route  to  India 
than  that  which  the  Portuguese  were  seeking  by  way  of  the 
African  coast,  he  might  never  have  sailed  on  his  great  jour 
ney.  But  he  had  also  at  heart  another  and  nobler  reason  for 
attempting  the  voyage  than  the  desire  to  open  a  trade  route 


THE  MAP  COLUMBUS   USED 
Compare  this  map  with  the  one  on  page  3,  which  shows  the  real  position  of  the  continents 

to  Asia:  he  wished  to  be  the  means  of  bringing  Christian 
ity  to  the  heathen  peoples  of  that  far-off  land. 

8.  He  seeks  aid.  Columbus,  however,  while  a  good  navi 
gator  was  poor  in  purse.  He  had  no  money  with  which  tc 
buy  ships  and  pay  and  feed  sailors,  and  it  was  necessary 
for  him  to  apply  to  some  government  for  aid  in  fitting  out 
his  expedition.  Accordingly,  he  first  presented  his  plan  to 
the  King  of  Portugal ;  but  the  King  said  he  was  a  dreamer 
and  turned  him  away.1  Thereupon  Columbus  asked  the  aid 
of  Portugal's  rival,  Spain,  whose  rulers  were  King  Ferdinand 

1  The  crafty  King,  nevertheless,  secretly  sent  one  of  his  own  navigators  out 
into  the  ocean,  to  see  what  was  to  be  found  there.  But  the  man  returned  after 
a  few  days  of  westward  sailing,  to  report  that  he  had  met  nothing  but  fierce 
storms  which  threatened  to  destroy  his  ship. 


8  THE  PERIOD  OF   DISCOVERY 

and  Queen  Isabella.1  Just  then,  however,  they  were  having 
a  long  and  fierce  war  with  the  Moors,  and  had  little  time 
or  money  to  ^pare  for  explorations.  They  gave  Columbus 
a  small  salary  and  kept  him  waiting  seven  long  weary  years 

without  deciding 
whether  or  not 
they  would  help 
him  in  his  pro 
posed  voyage. 2 
Meanwhile,  the 
poor  navigator, 
who  thought  and 
dreamed  of  little 
else,  tried  hard 
to  get  the  English 
and  French  kings 
interested  in  his 
scheme ;  but  they, 
too,  were  busy 
with  wars,  and 
told  Columbus 
that  they  had  no 
time  to  talk  with 
him  about  mys 
terious  countries 
on  the  other  side 
THE  SANTA  MARIA  of  the  dark  ocean, 


1  Ferdinand  was  King  of  Aragon,  a  part  of  Spain;   Isabella  was  Queen  of 
Castile,  another  part.    By  marrying,  they  united  their  two  kingdoms. 

2  A  council  of  learned  men  had  been  called  together  by  the  King  and  Queen, 
to  consider  the  plans  of  Columbus.    In  spite  of  all  he  could  say,  they  would  not 
believe  that  the  world  is  round.    They  said  that  if  a  ship  were  to  sail  beyond 
the  edge,  it  surely  would  tumble  off;  or,  if  the  earth  were  actually  round,  as  he 
stated,  the  vessel  would  slip  downhill,  where  the  earth  began  to  curve.    "If 
this  were  true,"  they  asked,  "  how  could  the  vessels  get  back  again  to  Spain?  " 
It  was  unreasonable,  they  said,  "to  suppose  that  men  could  live  on  the  other 
side  of  the  earth;  for  they  would  have  to  walk  with  their  heads  downward,  and 
rain  and  snow  must  fall  upward."  They  reported  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella- 
therefore,  that  Columbus's  ideas  were  "vain  and  impracticable,"  and  rested 
on  grounds  too  weak  to  merit  the  support  of  the  Government. 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS  9 

or  about  the  converting  of  heathen  peoples.  Such  treat 
ment  was  galling  to  an  ambitious  man  like  Columbus,  firmly 
believing,  as  he  did,  that  he  was  bound  to  succeed  if  only  he 
were  given  a  chance,  and  convinced,  through  his  deep  re 
ligious  fervor,  that  God  had  selected  him  to  perform  a  great 
work. 

9.  The  expedition  starts.  At  last,  however,  Columbus's 
perseverance  was  rewarded.   The  wise  and  generous  Queen 


Etching  by  Flameng  in  Belloy's  Columbus.     Courtesy,  Geo.  Barrie  Sf  Sons 

COLUMBUS'S   DEPARTURE   FROM   PALOS 
Contrast  this  picture  with  the  Landing  of  Columbus,  on  page  11 

Isabella  consented  to  help  him,  with  her  husband's  coopera 
tion,  to  make  the  trial  voyage.  Columbus  was  now  a  man 
of  about  forty-five,  but  had  grown  gray  and  old  from  his 
many  years  of  trouble  and  anxiety.  He  was  placed  in  com 
mand  of  three  small  sailing  ships  —  the  Santa  Maria,  the 
Pinta,  and  the  Nina  —  which  had  been  fitted  out  for  the  voy 
age  at  the  port  of  Palos.  The  crews  consisted  of  about  a 
hundred  unwilling  and  sullen  men,  who  had  been  enlisted 
with  great  difficulty,  many  indeed  by  force,  to  embark 


10  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

on  this  wild  voyage,  which  seemed  to  promise  nothing  but 
disaster  and  death  to  them  all.1  Columbus  was  created 
admiral  and  took  for  his  flagship  the  Santa  Maria,  the 
largest  vessel ;  and  the  monarchs  declared  him  viceroy  and 
governor  of  "all  the  islands  and  territories  which  he  may 
discover  or  acquire."  His  reward  was  to  be  a  tenth  part  of 
the  profits  of  the  voyage. 

Half  an  hour  before  sunrise,  on  Friday,  August  3,  1492, 
the  little  fleet  started  upon  the  world's  most  famous  voyage. 
To  the  people  in  Palos,  who  watched  the  vessels  silently 
Steal  out  into  the  broad  ocean,  this  seemed  the  maddest  and 
most  hazardous  adventure  of  which  they  had  ever  heard. 

10.  The  voyage.  Some  time  was  spent  in  the  Canary 
Islands,  while  one  of  the  ships  was  being  repaired,  so  that 
it  was  the  end  of  the  first  week  in  September  before  the  fleet 
actually  started  toward  the  west.  When  land  had  finally 
disappeared  in  the  east,  the  sailors  were  overcome  by  fear, 
and  many  burst  into  tears  and  lamentations.  The  firm  and 
courageous  attitude  of  Columbus,  however,  did  much  to  con 
trol  and  quiet  his  men,  although  sometimes  his  patience  was 
taxed  to  its  utmost  by  their  cowardice.  Every  time  anything 
strange  or  unusual  happened,  their  fear  became  almost  a 
panic;  as  when  the  compass  veered  round  to  the  west  of  the 
North  Star,  or  when  great  masses  of  seaweed  were  found 
in  mid-ocean,  suggesting  shallow  water  with  rocks  beneath. 
And  because  the  wind  had  blown  steadily  from  the  east  for  a 
long  time,  they  feared  that  there  might  never  be  a  breeze 
from  the  west  to  carry  them  safely  home  again.2  Again, 

1  The  voyage  cost  the  Spanish  monarchs  about  $93,000  in  our  money;  of 
this,  the  Queen  gave  over  two  thirds,  and  the  King  the  remainder.  The  vessels 
were  provided  free  by  the  town  of  Palos,  which  also  supplied  cannon  and  am 
munition;  and  several  private  persons  helped  to  meet  other  expenses.    The 
Santa  Maria,  the  largest  of  the  three  ships,  called  "caravels,"  was  of  about 
200  tons,  only  65  feet  long  and  20  feet  broad, — about  the  size  of  one  of  the 
sailing  boats  that  in  our  day  fish  off  the  New  England  coast.  The  largest 
steamers  crossing  the  Atlantic  in  our  time  are  of  66,000  tons,  and  nearly  900 
feet  long. 

2  The  explorers  were  then  in  the  region  of  the  "trade- winds, "so  called  because 
favorable  to  navigation  and  trade.    In  many  seas,  these  winds  blow  for  months 
together  in  one  direction. 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS 


It 


they  could  not  account  for  the  great  number  of  land  birds 
that  they  met. 

It  was  fortunate  for  the  whole  world  that  this  first  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic  was  made  in  calm  and  pleasant  weather. 
Yet  the  voyage  proved  so  much  longer  than  had  been  ex 
pected  that  the  discouraged  and  angry  sailors  finally  plotted 
to  throw  their  leader  overboard  and  return  home.  Even 
some  of  the  officers  joined  in  the  conspiracy. 


Paintiniibp  Gabrini  in  the  Field  Museum,  Chicago- 

THE  LANDING   OF  COLUMBUS 

ii.  Land  discovered.  But,  while  they  were  plotting,  the 
New  World  was  close  at  hand.  At  two  o'clock  on  the  morn 
ing  of  Friday,  October  12,  five  weeks  after  the  fleet  had  left 
the  Canary  Islands,  and  ten  weeks  after  leaving  Spain, 
the  lookout  on  the  masthead  of  the  Pinta  joyfully  shouted 
"  Land!  Land!  "  Columbus  had  won!  So  far  as  was  then 
known,  all  his  theories  had  been  proved  true;  and  his  officers 
and  men,  humbled  and  rejoicing,  now  looked  up  to  him  as  a 
great  and  wonderful  man.  Later  in  the  day  the  ships  cast 
anchor  in  the  harbor  of  a  little  island  in  the  Bahama  group,.. 


12  THE   PERIOD  OF   DISCOVERY 

which  Columbus  called  San  Salvador  (Holy  Saviour),  be 
cause  he  had  reached  it  in  safety.  Most  historians  now  think 
it  the  one  called  Watling's  Island  on  the  maps  of  to-day. 

12.  Taking  possession  of  the  New  World.  In  full  armor, 
made  more  resplendent  by  gorgeous  velvet  cloaks,  feathered 
hats,  and  flashing  swords,  the  Admiral  and  his  chief  officers 
were  rowed  ashore.    On  landing,  Columbus's  first  act  was 
to  kneel  upon  the  sandy  beach  and  with  tears  of  joy  thank" 
God  for  his  great  success.   Then,  a  cross  made  of  trunks  of 
trees  having  been  set  up,  and  solemn  religious  ceremonies 
concluded,  Columbus  drew  his  sword  and   triumphantly 
claimed  possession  of  these  lands  for  his  sovereigns,  the 
King  and  the  Queen  of  Spain. 

13.  The  land  and  the  people.    The  little  island  that  wel 
comed  these  first  Europeans  to  the  New  World  was  hilly, 
and  densely  clothed  with  palms  and  the  rich  vegetation  of 
the  tropics.    The  air  was  soft  and  balmy;  and  in  whatever 
direction  the  voyagers  looked,  the  view  was  entrancing. 

The  Spaniards  gazed  in  amazement  at  the  copper-colored 
and  half-naked  inhabitants  who  had  flocked  to  the  shore  to 
see  them.  But  what  must  have  been  the  astonishment  of  the 
simple  natives,  as  they  beheld  these  marvelously  dressed, 
pale-faced  men,  whose  like  they  had  never  seen  before,  who 
had  come  to  them  in  wonderful  ships,  straight  out  of  the 
mysterious  ocean?  Indeed,  so  convinced  were  the  timid 
barbarians  that  the  Spaniards  were  not  men  but  spirits,  that 
they  treated  them  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  hospitality. 

14.  The  new  land  supposed  to  be  India.  Columbus  de 
cided  that  the  archipelago  he  had  discovered  must  be  out 
lying  islands  of  India;  in  fact,  not  till  after  his  death  was 
it  known  to  Europeans  that  he  had  found  a  new  continent. 
For  this  reason  he  called  the  natives  "  Indians,"  an  incor 
rect  name  that  has  clung  to  them  ever  since. 

15.  Searching  for  wealth.    Three  months  were  spent  by 
the  adventurers  in  sailing  among  the  islands  that  we  now 
call  the  West  Indies;  but  nothing  worth  trading  for  was 
discovered  among  the  natives,  save  a  few  gold  ornaments, 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS  13 

which  showed  that  gold  mines  must  exist  somewhere  in  this 
new  land.  Cuba  and  Haiti  were  visited,1  and  in  Haiti 
the  Admiral  built  a  fort  and  left  forty  of  his  men.  When, 
the  next  year,  he  returned  from  Spain,  he  found  nothing 
but  the  bleached  bones  of  the  unfortunate  settlers,  who  had 
been  killed  by  the  natives.  Thus  the  conflict  between  white 
men  and  red  men  had  begun  in  earnest. 

16.  Triumphant  return.  In  returning  from  his  first  voy 
age,  Columbus  reached  Palos,  March  15,  1493.  As  his  fleet 
entered  the  harbor,  he  was  greeted  by  the  joyous  ringing 
of  church  bells  and  the  welcoming  shouts  of  the  people 
who,  a  few  months  before,  had  thought  him  a  madman.  He 
had  brought  with  him  six  Indians,  decked  out  in  paint  and 
finery,  and  many  Indian  curiosities,  besides  rare  plants  and 
stuffed  birds.  The  King  and  the  Queen,  then  at  Barcelona, 
commanded  him  to  visit  them ;  and  upon  the  long  land  jour 
ney  thither,  the  people  thronged  to  see  and  to  applaud  the 
great  discoverer  and  his  strange  companions.  At  Barcelona 
they  marched 


r  First  Voyage  . 

Second  Voyage- _ 

?  Third  Voyage 

f         Fourth  Voyage  *,., „»...»«. 


THE  FOUR  VOYAGES   OF   COLUMBUS 


into  town  in  a 
triumphal  pro 
cession,  escorted 
by  nobles  on 
horseback, 
drums  and 
trumpets  sound 
ing.  The  sover 
eigns  received 
Columbus  as  if  he  were  a  prince  returning  victorious  from 
war,  and  would  not  let  him  kneel  at  their  feet  as  other  men 
must,  but  bade  him  sit  beside  them.  After  hearing  the  story 
of  his  wonderful  journey,  they  conferred  special  honors  on 
him  and  on  his  family. 

17.  Other  voyages  by  Columbus.  The  following  year, 
Columbus  was  sent  out  again.  This  time  there  was  no  need 

1  Columbus  did  not  discover  that  Cuba  was  an  island,  although  he  sailed  for 
a  thousand  miles  along  its  coast. 


14  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

to  force  men  to  go  with  him.  Even  the  Spanish  nobles  were 
eager  to  be  of  the  party ;  and  several  large  ships  were  filled 
with  a  goodly  company  of  important  people,  who  thought 
they  had  but  to  pick  up  gold  on  the  shores  of  the  new  land, 
and  thus  become  wealthy.  Similar  expeditions  were  con 
ducted  by  Columbus  in  1498  and  1502;  but  none  of  these 
journeys  was  more  profitable  than  the  first,  and  from  each 
of  them  he  and  his  companions  returned  home  discouraged.1 

18.  Death  of  Columbus.  The  expense  of  these  several 
expeditions  to  the  New  World  had  been  very  great;  yet  up 
to  this  time  the  Government  of  Spain  could  see  no  gains  from 
them  that  might  be  measured  in  money.  Columbus  there 
fore  lost  the  favor  of  his  ungrateful  sovereigns,  and  through 
the  rest  of  his  life  was  neglected  by  every  one.  The  people 
who  once  had  loudly  cheered  him  as  the  greatest  explorer 
ever  known  in  Spain  now  complained  that  he  had  really 
found  nothing  in  the  West  but  a  wilderness  peopled  with 
savages  and  insects,  and  mockingly  called  him  "  Admiral 
of  Mosquito  Land."  He  died  in  1506,  a  poor,  broken-hearted, 
deserted  man,  not  even  himself  knowing  how  important 
his  discoveries  had  been.2 

Long  after  his  death  the  real  greatness  of  his  deed  came 
to  be  understood.  Men  then  realized  that  he  had  overcome 
obstacles  supposed  by  others  to  be  insurmountable ;  that  in 
breaking  the  barriers  of  superstition  and  fear,  he  had  not 

1  In  1498,  Columbus  saw  the  mainland  of  South  America,  but  still  thought 
it  to  be  Asia.     Owing  to  malicious  charges  against  him  —  that  he  was  tyran 
nical  and  cruel  toward  both  the  colonists  and  the  Indians,  that  he  did  not  send 
to  Spain  all  the  gold  that  he  found,  and  that  he  was  seeking  to  become  the  in 
dependent  ruler  of  the  West  Indies  —  he  was  sent  back  to  Spain  from  this 
voyage,  a  prisoner  in  chains.    But  the  people  were  so  indignant  at  this  treat 
ment  of  one  whom  they  still  regarded  as  a  national  hero,  that  he  was  released 
by  the  King  and  Queen.     In  1502,  he  vainly  sought  to  find  a  way  by  water 
through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  hoping  to  find  India  beyond  that.  Geographers 
then  believed  in  the  existence  of  a  route  of  this  sort,  which  on  their  maps  they 
called  "Southwest  Passage"  or  "Southern  Passage." 

2  He  died  and  was  buried  in  Valladolid,  but  his  remains  were  moved  later  to 
Seville.    About  1541,  however,  they  were  conveyed  to  the  island  of  Santo  Do 
mingo,  now  called  Haiti.   In  after  years,  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  again 
moved,  this  time  to  Havana,  Cuba.  In  December,  1898,  what  were  thought  to 
be  his  bones  at  Havana  were  once  more  taken  across  the  ocean  to  Spain.  There 
are  many,  however,  who  think  that  the  dust  of  Columbus  still  rests  in  Haiti. 


THE  STORY  OF  COLUMBUS  15 

only  doubled  the  size  of  the  known  world,  but  had  set  before 
mankind  a  splendid  example  of  courage  and  perseverance 
in  a  noble  cause.  Since  then,  all  civilized  people  have  honored 
his  memory. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

It  is  not  expected  that  each  pupil  in  the  class  will  answer  all  the  questions  or 
follow  all  the  suggestions  in  this  and  subsequent  chapters.  Some  of  these  may 
be  assigned  to  all  the  class;  others  may  be  assigned  to  individuals  for  special 
reports;  still  others  may  be  used  for  rapid  map-sketching,  on  the  blackboard  or 
otherwise. 

1.  What  part  or  parts  of  the  world  are  still  little  known  or  have  been 
little  explored?    Point  them  out  on  the  globe  or  map.    What  reasons 
can  you  give  why  these  parts  are  not  known? 

2.  Show  by  the  globe  or  map  the  most  direct  route  by  which  goods  from 
the  Orient  are  new  brought  to  Mediterranean  cities.  What  great  work 
was  done  by  man  to  make  this  route  possible? 

3.  What  similar  work  elsewhere  is  now  being  undertaken  by  the  United 
States?    Show  to  your  classmates  that  the  completion  of  this  under 
taking  will  give  to  western  Europe  the  route  to  the  Orient  which  Co 
lumbus  sought. 

4.  Dramatize  the  appeal  of  Columbus  to  Queen  Isabella. 

5.  If  you  had  lived  in  Spain  in  1504,  would  you  have  considered  Columbus 
a  success  or  a  failure?   State  your  reasons. 

6.  For  what  qualities  do  you  admire  Columbus? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  important  geographical  names  on  the  American  Con 
tinent  which  perpetuate  the  name  of  Columbus. 

8.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  word  "Indian." 

9.  Learn  to  sing  by  heart  all  the  stanzas  of  "America."  Why  should  you 
stand  while  you  sing  it? 

10.  Important  date:  October,  1492.    Discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Make  a  story  out  of  these  hints:  The  boy  Columbus  is  on  a  wharf  at 
Genoa;  a  ship  returns  which  has  lost  its  cargo  because  of  a  fight  with 
the  Turks;  Columbus  talks  with  the  sailors;  he  has  his  first  vague 
dreams  of  the  future. 

2.  Write  the  appeal  of  Columbus  to  Queen  Isabella  and  King  Ferdinand. 

3.  Give  an  Indian's  description  of  the  coming  of  the  white  men;  their 
ships;  the  landing;  their  ceremony  of  taking  possession  of  the  land  for 
their  sovereign;  the  language  of  the  whites;  their  questions;  and  the 
red  man's  opinion  about  it  all. 

4.  Imagine  that  you  are  one  of  Columbus's  men  and  describe  to  a  friend 
after  your  return  the  first  voyage  and  the  sights  of  the  New  World. 


16  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Mediaeval  trade  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

2.  Ideas  regarding  the  world. 

3.  Fears  of  ocean  navigation ;  the  means  by  which  these  fears  were  partly 
overcome. 

4.  Columbus's  experiences  in  procuring  aid  to  find  the  Indies. 

5.  The  first  voyage  and  its  results. 

6.  Reception  of  Columbus  in  Spain. 

7.  Other  voyages;  their  results. 

8.  Death  of  Columbus. 

9.  His  service  to  the  world. 


CHAPTER  II 

IN  THE  FOOTSTEPS   OF   COLUMBUS 

19.  England  discovers  North  America.  Meanwhile,  Eng 
land  did  not  intend  that  Spain  and  Portugal  should  have 
all  the  glory  and  profit  of  discovering  far-distant  lands.   In 
1497,  a  year  before  Columbus  saw  South  America,  the  Eng 
lish  King  sent  out  into  the  western  ocean  another  bold 
Genoese  sailor,  named  John  Cabot.1  In  order  that  he  might 
not  conflict  with  the  claims  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  Cabot 
crossed  the  northern  Atlantic;  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  he 
was  the  first  European,  except  the  early  Norwegians  from 
Iceland,  to  reach  the  mainland  of  North  America.    Just 
where  Cabot  first  saw  our  continent,  no  one  now  can  tell; 

-  some  think  it  was  Newfoundland ;  others,  Cape  Breton 
Island;  still  others,  Labrador.  No  doubt  he  visited  all  of 
these  places  before  returning  to  England.  The  next  year 
he  took  with  him  his  son  Sebastian,  and  in  a  fleet  of  five  or 
six  vessels  they  explored  the  coast  from  Labrador  to  Cape 
Cod.  In  later  years  England  based  her  claim  to  all  of  North 
America  upon  these  discoveries  by  the  Cabots.2 

20.  Americus  Vespucius  and  the  naming  of  America. 
Two  great  Italians,  Columbus  and  Cabot,  had  discovered 
the  New  World.   Yet,  by  a  curious  trick  of  fate,  it  was 
named  for  another  Italian  navigator,  Americus  Vespucius, 
who  had  merely  followed  in  their  footsteps.    It  is  believed 
by  some  historians  that  he  visited  the  northern  coast  of 

1  The  map  on  page  21  shows  Cabot's  route. 

2  The  miserly  Henry  VII,  then  King  of  England,  rewarded  John  Cabot  with 
£10  ($50)  for  discovering  the  "new  isle."   This  sum  would  be  equal  to  $700  or 
$800  in  the  money  of  our  time.  In  1498,  the  year  of  Cabot's  second  voyage  and 
of  Columbus's discovery  of  t-he  South  American  mainland,  a  Portuguese  named 
Vasco  da  Gama  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  reached  Hindustan.  He 
was  the  first  to  bring  to  Europe,  by  an  all-sea  route,  the  Asiatic  goods  that  her 
merchants  had  formerly  obtained  over  the  old  caravan  trails. 


18 


THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 


South  America  as  early  as  1499.  A  few  years  later,  in  1501 
and  1503, 1  being  then  in  the  pay  of  Portugal,  he  made  two 
journeys  to  Brazil,  which  had  already  been  discovered  by 
a  companion  of  Columbus,  and  published  a  map  and  descrip 
tion  of  that  country.  A  professor  of  geography  in  a  little 
German  town,  who  read  this  account,  believed  that  Amer- 
icus  had  actually  discovered  a  new  continent ;  and  he  sug 
gested  that  the  name  "  America  "  be  given  to  it.  At  first 

the  name  was  applied  only 
to  Brazil,  but  gradually  it 
came  to  signify  the  whole  of 
the  wrestern  hemisphere.  In 
this  manner  the  name  of  a 
large  part  of  the  world  was 
wrested  for  all  time  from  its 
real  discoverer,  Columbus.2 
21.  Spanish  explorations 
and  conquests.  Spaniards 
were  now  coming  over  in 
large  numbers  to  America, 
which  they  still  thought  was 
a  part  of  India.  In  some  of 
the  West  Indian  islands,  but 
more  particularly  in  Mexico 
and  Peru,3  they  found  rich 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  and 
built  there  large  towns,  guarding  them  by  strong  forts.  The 
colonists  were  so  excited  by  the  stories  of  great  wealth  made 
by  some  of  their  countrymen,  through  conquest  and  mining, 
that  they  scorned  ordinary  employment;  they  would  not 
cultivate  the  land  and  sought  only  lives  of  adventure,  in 

1  Note  his  route  on  the  map  on  page  21. 

2  Columbia  is  the  poetical  name  for  the  United  States  —  as  in  the  well- 
known  song,  "Columbia,  the  Gem  of  the  Ocean."    Many  geographical  names 
in  North  and  South  America  have  been  given  in  honor  of  Columbus. 

3  In  1519,  Cortes,  an  adventurous  Spanish  soldier,  entered  Mexico,  and  in 
a  few  years  conquered  the  natives,  whom  he  treated  with  great  cruelty. 

Pizarro,  another  Spanish  soldier,  discovered  Peru  in  1527,  and  soon  after  that 
conquered  the  country. 


AMERICUS    VESPUC1US 


IN  THE   FOOTSTEPS  OF  COLUMBUS  19 

'which  many  of  them  found  little  else  than  disappointment 
and  misery. 

Early  Spanish  towns  in  America  were  practically  mili 
tary  camps,  where  everything  was  managed  for  the  people 
by  the  home  Government  in  Spain.  Not  having  to  think 
and  act  for  themselves,  there  was  little  else  for  the  inhabit 
ants  to  do  but  to  conduct  explorations  and  work  the  mines 
with  Indian  slaves.1 

One  of  the  most  courageous  of  the  Spanish  explorers  was 
Balboa.  In  1513  he  climbed  a  high  peak  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  now  called  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and,  first  of  all 
Spaniards,  saw  the  Pacific  Ocean  —  or,  as  he  called  it,  the 
South  Sea. 

Another  famous  discoverer  was  Balboa's  aged  country 
man,  Ponce  de  Leon,  Governor  of  Porto  Rico,  who  went  to 
Florida  in  the  same  year  with  a  company  of  soldiers,  seek 
ing  not  only  gold,  but  a  wonderful  spring  of  which  the 
Indians  had  told  him.  They  said  that  if  an  old  man  like 
Ponce  drank  of  its  waters,  he  would  be  made  young  again. 
Of  course  the  explorer  found  no  such  spring.  He  returned 
after  a  difficult  journey,  which  nearly  cost  him  his  life; 
but  he  had  discovered  for  Spain  a  country  so  beautiful  that 
it  well  deserved  to  bear  the  name  he  gave  it  —  Florida. 
His  own  reason  for  giving  the  name,  however,  was  that 
he  landed  there  on  Easter  Sunday,  which  the  Spanish  call 
Pascua  Florida  (Festival  of  Flowers). 

22.  Magellan's  voyage  around  the  world.  Most  geogra 
phers  had  now  come  to  believe  that  the  earth  was  a  sphere, 
but  as  yet  no  one  had  actually  sailed  around  it.  So  Ferdi 
nand  Magellan,  a  brave  Portuguese  navigator  hired  by  Spain, 
set  out  to  perform  this  great  feat.  In  September,  1519,  he 
started  southwestward  from  Spain  upon  the  most  daring 
voyage  that  any  man  except  Columbus  had  yet  undertaken. 
In  due  time,  he  entered  what  we  now  know  as  the  Strait 
of  Magellan.  Beyond  this  he  found  the  mysterious  South 

1  Thousands  of  these  poor  people  were  put  to  the  hardest  kind  of  work  for 
their  white  masters,  and  large  numbers  died  from  exhaustion  and  ill-treatment. 


20 


THE   PERIOD   OF  DISCOVERY 


Sea.  He  called  it  "  Pacific,"  because  at  first  it  seemed  more 
quiet  than  the  Atlantic,  which  had  used  him  very  roughly; 
but  he  soon  saw  that  the  Pacific  might  be  quite  as  tempest 
uous  as  any  other  sea. 

Months  and  months  passed  in  that  great  unknown  deep, 
with  no  sight  of  land.  The  sailors  now  believed  that  they 
had  come  to  an  ocean  without  end,  from  which  they  might 

never  be  able  to  return. 
Mutinies  were  frequent; 
the  crew  of  one  ship  de 
serted  and  steered  their 
vessel  back  to  Spain; 
others  of  the  ships  were 
wrecked ;  starvation 
threatened ;  there  was 
much  sickness,  and  many 
deaths.  Finally,  the  party 
landed  on  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  here  it  was 
the  fate  of  the  brave  leader 
of  the  expedition  to  be 
killed  by  savage  natives.1 
The  survivors  kept  on 
their  way;  and  on  Sep 
tember  6,  1522,  there 
sailed  into  a  harbor  of 
Spainalittle  shipmanned 
by  a  crew  of  eighteen  half- 
starved  and  ragged  seamen,  the  only  ones  left  to  tell  the 
thrilling  tale  of  this  first  voyage  around  the  world. 

23.  Results  of  Magellan's  exploit.     Two  great  results 
followed  from  Magellan's  voyage:  — 

(a)  It  was  now  proved,  beyond  doubt,  that  the  earth  is 
round. 

(b)  It  was  proved  that  America  was  not,  as  most  geo- 

1  As  Magellan  had  been  in  this  region  before,  sailing  eastward  from  Europe, 
he  had,  on  arriving  at  the  Philippines,  completely  circled  the  globe. 


MAGELLAN 


IN  THE   FOOTSTEPS  OF  COLUMBUS  21 

graphers  had  up  to  this  time  thought,  a  group  of  islands 
lying  off  the  shore  of  Asia,  but  a  great  new  continent. 

Magellan  had  sought,  upon  his  voyage,  to  discover  the 
"  Southwest  Passage,"  a  sea  route  to  India,  lying  south  of 
America,  but  he  found  that  it  was  too  far  to  the  south  to 
be  of  much  practical  use  to  European  navigators.  After 
this,  most  of  the  ambitious  naval  explorers  who  were  seeking 
a  westward  route  to  Asia  searched  for  a  "  Northwest  Pas 
sage,"  1  to  the  north  of  America. 

24.  De  Soto's  expedition.   Meanwhile,  the  Spanish  did 


OLUMNS    ,492 


THE  EARLIEST  VOYAGES   TO   AMERICA  AND  AROUND   THE  WORLD 

not  neglect  the  interior  exploration  of  North  America. 
Hernando  de  Soto,  then  the  Governor  of  Cuba,  became 
greatly  interested  in  the  report  of  Ponce  de  Leon  about 
Florida,  as  the  Spanish  at  first  called  all  the  country  north 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  He  determined  to  explore  it,  and  for 
that  purpose  sailed  from  Havana  in  1539,  with  nine  vessels 
and  several  hundred  men. 

Landing  at  Tampa  Bay,  De  Soto  and  his  followers  set 
forth  on  horseback  and  on  foot  upon  a  long  and  dangerous 

1  A  sea  passage  to  the  north  of  North  America,  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  was  at  last  discovered  in  1850  by  an  Englishman,  Captain 
Robert  M'Clure;  but  it  is  in  the  ice-bound  arctic  regions,  and  of  no  great  use 
to  any  one.  The  first  ship  actually  to  make  this  passage,  after  four  centuries  of 
trial,  was  the  tiny  Gjoa,  commanded  by  Captain  Roald  Amundsen  of  Norway, 
who  pushed  through  westward  from  the  Atlantic,  in  the  summers  of  1904  and 
1905. 


22  THE   PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 

journey  through  the  vast  forests  and  swamps  north  of  the 
Gulf.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  party  died  from  star 
vation  and  sickness  or  in  fights  with  the  Indians,  whom 
they  had  treated  cruelly.  Two  years  later  the  little  army 
found  and  crossed  the  Mississippi  River,  not  far  from  the 
present  Natchez.  While  still  upon  the  great  river,  De  Soto 
died ;  and  his  body  was  sunk  in  the  stream  by  his  companions, 
in  order  that  the  Indians  might  not  discover  the  loss  of  the 
white  leader  and  think,  therefore,  that  the  survivors  might 
safely  be  attacked.  After  four  years  of  miserable  wander 
ing  the  ragged,  exhausted  remnant  of  DeSoto'sband  found 
their  way  to  the  City  of  Mexico. 

25.  Coronado's  great  march.  Of  all  Spanish  expeditions 
into  our  country,  Coronado's  was  the  most  remarkable. 
That  brave  officer  started  in  1540  from  Mexico  to  discover 
the  wonderful  "  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola  "  and  a  mysterious 
country  called  "  Quivira."  The  Spaniards  had  been  told  by 
Indians  that  these  places  lay  somewhere  in  the  wilderness 
far  to  the  north  of  Mexico,  and  that  their  inhabitants, 
who  lived  in  great  castles  with  thousands  of  rooms,  were  so 
rich  that  they  ate  from  plates  of  solid  gold.  To  capture  this 
astonishing  wealth  was  the  object  of  Coronado's  march. 

With  him  was  an  army  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  horse 
men,  seventy  foot  soldiers,  over  three  hundred  Indian  al 
lies,  and  more  than  a  thousand  negro  and  Indian  servants. 
A  herd  of  mules  carried  their  baggage;  a  great  drove  of 
hogs,  sheep,  and  oxen  were  taken  along  for  food;  and  cows 
also  were  in  the  caravan,  to  furnish  milk  for  the  officers. 
It  was  very  hard,  dry,  and  dusty  work,  this  marching  over 
thousands  of  miles  of  deserts  and  plains,  in  the  hot  sun;  and 
often  the  poor  wanderers  suffered  terribly  from  thirst.  When 
at  last  they  reached  "  Cibola,"  the  "  seven  cities  "  were 
found  to  be  merely  a  group  of  the  curious  many-storied  and 
many-roomed  houses  of  mud  and  stone,  "  pueblos,"  1  of 
the  Zuni  Indians,  in  what  is  now  New  Mexico.  Of  course 
there  were  no  plates  of  gold  in  them,  nor  anything  else  that 
1  Pueblo  is  the  Spanish  word  for  "village." 


IN  THE   FOOTSTEPS  OF  COLUMBUS  23 

Spanish  adventurers  would  consider  valuable.  As  for 
"  Quivira,"  that  turned  out  to  be  merely  a  squalid  camp  of 
roving  Indians  in  the  present  Kansas.  After  painfully  trav 
eling  for  two  years  through  the  region  now  divided  into 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  and 
losing  many  men  from  exhaustion  and  fierce  attacks  by  In 
dians,  the  disappointed  Coronado  returned  to  Mexico.  He 
had  discovered  none  of  the  wealth  that  he  sought;  but  he 
did  make  known  to  Europeans  a  very  large  part  of  our 
Southwest,  including  the  wonderful  Grand  Canon  of  the 


MAIN   STREET   OF   AN    INDIAN    PUEBLO   IN    NEW   MEXICO 
The  houses  are  entered  at  the  top  by  means  of  the  ladders 

Colorado.  He  is  among  the  bravest  and  hardiest  explorers 
to  be  met  with  in  American  history. 

26.  Spanish  settlements.  It  was  more  than  half  a  century 
after  Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  Florida  that  his  country 
men  built  St.  Augustine,  about  1565,  the  oldest  city  in  the 
United  States.  About  the  same  length  of  time  after  Coro- 
nado's  march  through  New  Mexico,  they  founded  Santa  Fe, 
our  second  oldest  town.     In  both  these  places,  there  are 
still  to  be  seen  ruins  and  other  relics  of  this  early  Spanish 
occupation. 

27.  Spanish  missionaries.  Following  closely  on  the  path 
of  such  men  as  Coronado,  and  frequently  accompanying 
them,  were  Spanish  missionary  priests.    Their  only  object 


24  THE  PERIOD  OF   DISCOVERY 

was  to  convert  the  wild  Indians  to  the  Christian  faith  and 
lead  them  into  paths  of  civilization,  as  Columbus  himself 
had  desired.  In  this  noble  work  they  often  suffered  great 
hardships,  and  were  quite  as  enterprising  and  fearless  as 
their  adventurous  countrymen  who  sought  for  gold.  Six 
teen  years  before  Santa  Fe  was  founded,  the  Fathers  came 
among  the  Pueblo  Indians,  whom  Coronado  had  visited. 
Little  by  little  they  ventured  into  other  regions,  and  in  the 
next  century  were  to  be  found,  far  apart  from  each  other,  all 
over  our  Southwest,  building  mission  houses  and  teaching 
the  natives  how  to  be  farmers.  Ruins  of  many  of  the  old 
Spanish  missions  are  still  to  be  seen,  chiefly  in  New  Mexico 
and  California. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Indicate  on  a  map  of  North  America  the  portion  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
discovered  by  the  Cabots.  Why  was  this  discovery  of  great  importance? 

2.  Dramatize  the  meeting  between  the  English  King  and  John  Cabot, 
the  latter  being  presented  with  fifty  dollars  for  "finding  the  new  isle." 

3.  The  historian  Bancroft  says,  "DeSoto  discovered  many  ^wonderful 
things,  but  found  nothing  so  wonderful  as  his  own  grave."   Explain 
this  quotation. 

4.  Trace  on  a  map  of  North  America  the  region  explored  by  Coronado. 

5.  Show  on  a  map  of  North  America  the  region  explored  by  the  Spaniards. 

6.  Compare  the  motives  of  the  Spanish  gold-seekers  with  those  of  the 
Spanish  priests. 

7.  Pupils  representing  respectively  one  of  the  survivors  of  Magellan's 
expedition,  Balboa,  and  Coronado,  may  each  relate  the  story  of  his 
adventures  to  an  imaginary  Spanish  king. 

8.  Name  and  locate  the  two  oldest  towns  in  the  United  States.  What 
reasons  can  you  give  why  it  was  such  a  long  time  after  the  discovery 
of  North  America  before  these  towns  were  founded? 

9.  Compare  the  present  importance  of  Spain  among  the  nations  with  its 
importance  during  the  sixteenth  century. 

10.  Important  dates:  1513  —  Discovery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Balboa. 

I5IQ-I522  —  First  voyage  around  the  world  by  Magellan's  expedition. 
i:.  Complete  the  tabulated  summary  of  the  important  discoveries  and 

explorations  made  in  the  interests  of  Spain,  printed  on  the  opposite 

page. 


IN  THE  FOOTSTEPS  OF  COLUMBUS 


SUMMARY  OF  SPANISH  DISCOVERIES  AND  EXPLORATIONS 


Name  of  Discoverer  or 
Explorer 

Date  or  Dates 

Results 

I.  Discovery  of  America 

2.  Exploration  or  discovery  of 
Brazil 

3.  Discovery  of     the    Pacific 
Ocean 

4.  First  circumnavigation   of 
the  globe 

5.  Exploration  of  Florida 

6.  Exploration  of  the  South 
west 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Prepare  to  write,  or  talk  for  about  five  minutes,  on  any  one  of  the  fol 
lowing  topics:  — 

(a)  The  first  circumnavigation  of  the  earth. 
(6)  Vespucius's  services  to  his  contemporaries. 

(c)  De  Soto's  adventures. 

(d)  What  the  Cabots  did  for  England. 

(e)  Spanish  claims  in  the  New  World. 
(/)  Balboa  and  the  Pacific. 

2.  Write  five  entries  in  a  supposed  diary  of  Coronado,  one  telling  of  his 
hopes  at  starting;  three  describing  his  discovery  of  the  Grand  Canon 
of  the  Colorado,  Cibola,  and  Quivira  respectively;  and  one  telling  of 
his  return. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Cabot's  discovery  of  North  America. 

2.  The  naming  of  America. 

3.  Spanish  explorations  in  North  and  South  America. 

4.  Magellan's  voyage  around  the  world. 

5.  Exploration  of  the  interior  of  North  America  by  the  Spanish. 


CHAPTER   III 

ENGLISH  AND  DUTCH   DISCOVERIES 

28.  English  buccaneers.  At  the  beginning  of  the  six 
teenth  century  Spain  was  stronger  upon  the  sea  than  any 
other  European  nation.  She  had  thus  far  outrivaled  all  of 
them  in  exploration  and  conquest  and  was  at  last  reaping  the 
harvest  in  vast  quantities  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones 
that  poured  into  the  country  from  America.  Yet  she  had 
need  of  all  this  treasure  to  pay  the  expenses  of  her  many  wars 
in  Europe  and  to  defend  her  American  colonies,  the  latter  of 
which  she  was  finding  a  costly  burden.  England,  meanwhile, 
though  a  country  of  brave  seamen,  was  as  yet  too  weak  to 
venture  into  any  lands  that  Spain  had  settled. 

But,  little  by  little,  Spain  grew  weaker,1  and  England 
more  powerful.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
English  sea-captains  began  boldly  to  plunder  fleets  of  Span 
ish  treasure  ships  on  their  way  from  America  to  Spain, 
although  at  first  the  two  countries  were  supposed  to  be  at 
peace  with  each  other.  In  our  time  we  severely  denounce  and 
punish  all  sea  robbers,  or  pirates;  but  in  those  days,  when 
English  "  buccaneers,"  as  they  were  called,  came  sailing 
into  their  home  ports,  with  rich  cargoes  snatched  from  Span 
ish  galleons,2  they  were  welcomed  by  their  sovereign,  and  the 
people  praised  them  as  the  nation's  heroes.  Through  these 
sea  robberies  Spain  each  year  met  with  enormous  losses, 
while  England  grew  more  and  more  wealthy,  and  her  sail- 

1  One  of  the  serious  troubles  with  Spain  was  that  her  people  living  at  home 
were  envious  of  the  fortunes  easily  made  by  Spaniards  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and 
became  restless.  They  did  not  now  care  for  the  slow  gains  of  farming  and  manu 
facturing,  and  became  a  nation  of  speculators.  The  more  sober-minded  English 
then  took  up  these  neglected  industries,  sent  the  products  to  the  markets 
formerly  supplied  by  Spain,  and  profited  thereby. 

2  The  largest  Spanish  ships  were  called  "galleons";  the  smaller  sort,  used 
by  Columbus,  "caravels." 


ENGLISH   AND   DUTCH   DISCOVERIES  27 

ors  gradually  became  the  most  warlike  and  skillful  in 
Europe. 

29.  The  Grand  Armada.  The  Netherlands  was  then  a 
rich  and  busy  maritime  nation,  with  fleets  sailing  to  all  the 
great  seaports  of  Europe  and  Asia.    It  was,  however,  under 
the  harsh  and  often  cruel  control  of  Spain.  After  a  time  the 
brave  little  nation  rose  in  rebellion  against  her  Spanish 
master,  and  England  aided  her  during  a  fierce  war  that  lasted 
through  forty  years.    Spain  had  a  difficult  task  in  fighting 
these  two  seafaring  nations  at  once,  because  at  the  same  time 
she  was  obliged  to  protect  her  ships  and  her  far-away  Amer 
ican  colonies  from  the  terrible  English  buccaneers.   In  1588 
Spain  hoped  to  demolish  England  by  sending  against  her  a 
great  fleet  of  warships,  called  the  "  Grand  Armada."    But 
the  Armada  met  with  a  disastrous  defeat,  and  thenceforth 
plucky  England  was  the  "  Queen  of  the  Seas."    No  Euro 
pean  rival  could  now  prevent  her  from  seeking  a  new  road 
to  India,  or  from  exploring  and  settling  whatever  heathen 
lands  she  wished  to  add  to  her  kingdom. 

30.  Drake's  voyage.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Eng 
lish  buccaneers  and  sea  rovers  was  Sir  Francis  Drake.1 
Through  a  period  of  thirty  years  this  daring  man  made 
many  expeditions  to  America,  trading  with  the  Indians 
and  attacking  and  burning  Spanish  ships  and  settlements. 

But  the  voyage  of  his  in  which  we  are  most  interested  be 
gan  in  December,  1577,  when  he  sailed  westward  with  five 
ships,  to  follow  the  great  Magellan's  path  around  the  world.2 
Dashing  up  the  South  American  coast,  Drake  pillaged  Span 
ish  towns  in  Chile  and  Peru,  and  robbed  every  Spanish  treas 
ure  ship  that  he  met.  Landing  in  what  is  now  California,  he 

1  When  eighteen  years  old,  Drake  owned  a  ship.    He  went    on  long  and 
daring  voyages,  dealing  in  African  slaves,  and  made  a  business  of  fighting  and 
robbing  Spanish  vessels  and  towns  wherever  he  could  find  them.    Returning 
from  one  of  his  many  famous  voyages  (1572-73),  he  arrived  at  Plymouth, 
England,  on  a  Sunday;   the  people  were  so  eager  to  see  him  that  they  left 
the  parson  alone  in  the  church,  and  crowded  to  the  harbor  to  welcome  the  hero 
home.   He  died  during  one  of  his  raids  (1595),  and  was  buried  at  sea,  off  Vene 
zuela. 

2  The  map  on  page  21  shows  the  routes  of  both  Magellan  and  Drake. 


28 


THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 


took  possession  of  the  country  and  called  it  "  New  Albion, M1 
in  honor  of  his  native  land.  After  some  adventures  with  the 
Indians,  he  continued  westward  over  the  Pacific  and  In 
dian  Oceans,  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  arrived 
in  England  with  but  one  ship,  his  others  having  been  lost, 
after  an  absence  of  two  years  and  ten  months. 

Cabot's  discovery  had  given  England  the  right  to  claim 

, ,    the    east    coast    of    North 

America;  and  now  Drake 
claimed  for  her  the  west 
coast,  with  all  of  the  great 
continent  that  lay  between 
those  distant  shores  —  that 
is,  all  of  North  America 
north  of  Mexico. 

31.  Henry  Hudson's  dis 
covery.  The  people  of  the 
Netherlands,  whom  we  call 
the  Dutch,  carried  on  a 
large  trading  business  with 
the  East  Indies,  so  called 
to  distinguish  them  from  the 
West  Indies.  They,  too, 
wanted  to  find  an  all-sea 
trade  route  to  Asia  and  for 
this  search  hired  a  brave 
and  skillful  English  navi 
gator  named  Henry  Hud 
son,  who  had  had  much  ex 
perience  in  arctic  waters.  In  1609  Hudson  sailed  northward 
in  his  ship,  the  Half  Moon,  and  attempted  to  go  around  by 
the  north  of  Europe,  but  was  stopped  by  ice.  Not  at  all 
discouraged,  he  crossed  over  to  the  west  side  of  the  North 
Atlantic  and  tried,  as  had  several  Englishmen  before  him, 
to  find  a  passage  to  Asia  through  the  heart  of  the  American 

1  "Albion"  is  the  poetical  name  for  England,  just  as  "Columbia"  is  for 
,he  United  States. 


THE  HALF  MOON  ON  THE  HUDSON 
RIVER 

This  vessel  was  about  59  feet  lonp  on  the  waterline,  17 
feet  wide,  and  10  feet  deep;  displacement,  60  tons. 
The  crew  probably  numbered  less  than  twenty 


ENGLISH  AND   DUTCH   DISCOVERIES  29 

continent,  somewhere  north  of  Virginia.  While  upon  this 
quest  he  discovered  New  York  Bay  1  and  the  great  river 
here  emptying  into  the  sea  from  the  north.  The  extent  of 
this  body  of  water  caused  him  to  believe  that  it  must 
surely  be  the  wished-for  route,  and  he  ascended  it  to  a  point 
near  where  Albany  is  now.  But  by  this  time  Hudson  saw 
his  mistake  and  turned  back,  much  disappointed.  The 
name  of  this  great  explorer  has  ever  since  been  given  to 
the  picturesque  river  that  he  made  known  to  the  civilized 
world.2 

Hudson's  disappointment  came  from  failure  to  find  here 
a  short  route  to  Asia;  but  he  was  greatly  pleased  with  the 
country  that  he  had  discovered.  He  and  his  men  fre 
quently  went  ashore  and,  in  the  words  of  an  old  narra 
tive,  found  the  land  "  pleasant  with  grass  and  flowers  and 
as  goodly  trees  as  ever  they  had  seen,  and  very  sweet  smells 
came  from  them."  Sometimes  the  Indians  came  aboard 
the  Half  Moon,  bringing  to  Hudson  presents  of  furs  and 
of  grapes  and  pumpkins  that  they  had  grown;  and  once  a 
chief  "made  him  an  oration'*  and  "showed  him  all  the 
country  round  about." 

1  There  is  little  doubt  that,  eighty-five  years  before  this  (in  1524),  New  York 
Bay  had  been  discovered  by  an  Italian  navigator,  Verrazano,  who,   in  the 
employ  of  France,  was  making  explorations  along  the  coast  from  North  Car 
olina  to  New  England.    Only  a  few  people  heard  of  his  discovery,  and  it  was 
soon  forgotten  —  probably  Hudson  never  knew  of  it;  the  latter's  discovery  $ 
however,  was  at  once  widely  talked  about  in  Europe,  and  settlers  soon  appeared 
in  the  region. 

A  full-sized  reproduction  of  the  Half  Moon  was  in  1909  presented  by  Holland 
to  New^York  City,  on  the  occasion  of  the  three-hundredth  anniversary  of 
Hudson's  discovery  of  the  river.  The  quaint  little  vessel  was  greeted  in  New 
York  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  has  been  kept  by  the  city. 

2  In  1610,  while  in  English  employ,  Hudson  again  tried  to  find  the  North 
west  Passage,  and  discovered  Hudson  Bay.   There,  in  the  summer  of  1611,  his 
crew  mutinied  and  set  him  adrift  in  a  frail  boat  with  his  son,  John,  and  five 
sick  sailors.   They  were  never  again  heard  from. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Trace  on  a  globe  the  route  of  Drake's  memorable  voyage. 

2.  Read  about  the  "Grand  Armada,"  and  prepare  to  give  your  class 
mates  an  oral  report. 

3.  Why  did  the  English  feel  free  after  1588  to  make  explorations  in  the 
New  World? 

4.  Important  date:  1609  —  Discovery  of  the  Hudson  River. 

5.  Complete  the  following  chronological  outline  of  the  most  important 
events  recorded  in  the  first  three  chapters:  — 


Event 

Nations 
interested 

Explorer  or 
Discoverer 

Motives 

Results 

1492 

1497 

1513 

1519-22 

1540 

1577-80 

1609 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

.c.  Write  brief  biographies  of  some  of  the  greatest  men  you  meet  in  Ameri 
can  history.  It  is  suggested  that  up  to  this  point  you  take  Columbus, 
John  Cabot,  Magellan,  Hudson. 

2.  Impersonate  Drake  and  tell  Queen  Elizabeth  your  adventures  in  the 
voyage  around  the  world. 

3.  Two  boys  engage  in  conversation  as  they  rest  under  an  old  oak  on  the 
Hudson.  The  age  of  the  tree  and  the  name  of  the  river  suggest  events 
of  long  ago,  which  they  talk  over.   Write  the  conversation. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  England  grows  rich  and  strong,  while  Spain  becomes  poor  and  weak. 

2.  Drake's  voyages  and  their  results. 

3.  England  becomes  the  "Queen  of  the  Seas." 

4.  Hudson's  discoveries. 


CHAPTER   IV 

FRENCH  DISCOVERIES  AND  SETTLEMENTS 

32.  New  France  founded.  Soon  after  Cabot  had  discov 
ered   Newfoundland  for   England,   French  fishermen  set 
tled  in  little  groups  along  its  shores  and  there  dried  the  fish 
that  they  afterwards  sold  in  the  Mediterranean  ports.    In 
1534  the  adventurous  navigator,  Cartier,  discovered  for 
France  the  St.  Lawrence  River;  1  but  it  was  nearly  three 
quarters  of  a  century  after  that  before  any  lasting  settle 
ment  was  made  by  French  people  upon  our  mainland.2 
In  July,  1608,  Champlain,  whom  the  King  made  Governor 
of  New  France,  as  French  possessions  in  America  were 
henceforth  called,  established  his  little  capital  on  the  lofty 
cliff  of  Quebec.  He  thought  that  this  situation  could  readily 
be  defended  against  Indian  attacks  and  any  possible  as 
sault  from  the  English  —  for  the  latter  claimed  that  French 
men  had  no  right  whatever  to  settle  in  a  country  that  had 
been  discovered  by  an  English  explorer. 

Three  years  after  this  Montreal  was  founded,  and  grad 
ually  there  sprang  up  other  little  villages  along  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  its  tributary  streams.  Because  at  first  there 
were  no  roads,  the  early  French  in  Canada  traveled  mostly 
by  boats ;  and  for  this  reason  every  man  wanted  to  live  where 
a  river  passed  his  door. 

33.  Champlain's  explorations.  Governor  Champlain  was 
a  remarkably  wise  and  courageous  man,  and  one  of  the  most 

1  He  ascended  the  stream  "until  land  could  be  seen  on  either  side";  and 
the  following  year  (1535)  repeated  his  voyage,  going  up  as  far  as  the  site  of 
Montreal.   The  Indians  of  that  place,  who  had  never  before  seen  a  white  man, 
treated  him  "as  if  a  god  had  come  down  to  cure  them";  and  he  delighted  them 
by  giving  them  knives,  hatchets,  and  beads,  and  having  his  buglers  blow  trum 
pets  in  their  honor. 

2  In  1604  Champlain  and  others  settled  at  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis 
Royal,  Nova  Scotia),  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.    They  afterward 
removed  to  Quebec. 


32  THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 

venturesome  of  American  explorers.  He  traveled  far  and 
wide  with  native  guides  through  the  dense  wilderness 
of  Canada,  canoeing  l  upon  rivers  with  swift  currents  and 
perilous  rapids  and  falls,  and  visiting  the  wildest  and  most 
hostile  tribes  and  making  treaties  with  them.  Once  he 
journeyed,  amid  great  dangers,  as  far  west  as  Lake  Huron; 
it  was  in  1615  that  he  discovered  this  inland  sea.2 

Champlain  won  for  his  people  the  warm  friendship  of 
the  neighboring  Algonquian  tribes,  among  whom  he  intro 
duced  the  fur  trade.  Once,  however,  he  made  a  serious 
mistake.  A  year  after  building  Quebec  he  good-naturedly 
went  with  a  war  party  of  these  neighbors  to  help  them  fight 
their  old  enemy,  the  fierce  Iroquois,  who  lived  chiefly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mohawk  River,  in  the  present  State  of  New 
York.  The  Iroquois  had  never  before  seen  a  white  man; 
and  their  own  weapons  being  spears  and  bows  and  arrows, 
they  of  course  knew  nothing  about  firearms.  When  Cham- 
plain  met  them  on  Lake  Champlain,  which  he  discovered  and 
named,  and  fired  at  them  with  his  heavy,  large-barreled 
gun,  he  killed  several;  the  others  fled  in  terror  before  this 
new  and  mysterious  weapon.3 

The  people  of  New  France  soon  came  bitterly  to  regret 
this  easy  victory  over  the  Iroquois,  for  the  latter  were  the 
most  skillful  fighters  among  North  American  savages  and 
never  forgave  the  injury.  In  time,  they  themselves  obtained 
guns  from  the  Dutch  and  the  English  to  the  south  and  east 
of  them;  and  for  every  Iroquois  killed  on  that  memorable 
day  hundreds  of  Frenchmen  in  later  years  paid  forfeit  with 
their  lives. 

1  Europeans  soon  became  skillful  in  the  use  of  the  light  bark  canoes  made  by 
the  natives. 

2  The  Great  Lakes  were  found  by  the  French  in  this  order:  Huron  and  On 
tario,  1615;  Superior, about  1629;  Michigan,  1634;  Erie,  1640.  Although  nearthe 
French  settlements,  Erie  was  the  last  to  be  visited  by  Frenchmen  because  the 
Iroquois  of  New  York  were  masters  of  this  water;  and  the  French,  who  greatly 
feared  them,  were  long  obliged,  in  making  their  voyages  into  the  Far  Western 
country,  to  go  by  way  of  the  Ottawa  and  French  Rivers  and  Lake  Huron. 

3  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  a  few  weeks  after  this  unfortunate  event  took 
place  on  Lake  Champlain,  Henry  Hudson  was  exploring  Hudson  River  for  the 
Dutch,  only  a  hundred  m'^s  to  the  south. 


FRENCH   DISCOVERIES  AND   SETTLEMENTS    33 


The  enterprising  Champlain  selected  several  sturdy  young 
men  of  his  colony  to  live  among  the  Canadian  Indians  for 
years  at  a  time,  until  they  had  learned  the  customs  and  lan 
guages  of  the  savages  and  knew  how  to  overcome  fatigue  and 
meet  danger  in  the  great  wilderness.  After  this  vigorous 

education    these    , 

pupils  of  the 
forest  were  sent 
out  on  long  and 
hazardous  expe 
ditions  upon  the 
far-stretching 
rivers  and  lakes 
of  the  West.  One 
of  this  class  was 
Jean  Nicolet, 
who  in  1634  was 
the  first  white 
man  to  visit  Lake 
Michigan  and 
what  is  now  Wis 
consin.  By  means  of  explorations  such  as  these,  the  bound 
aries  of  New  France  were  greatly  extended.1 

34.  French  relations  with  the  Indians.  Frenchmen 
managed  to  live  on  better  terms  with  their  Indian  neigh 
bors,  excepting  the  Iroquois,  than  did  the  English.  There 
were  two  good  reasons  for  this :  - 

(a)  Englishmen  cut  down  the  forests  and  opened  farms, 
and  thus  drove  away  the  game  on  which  the  Indians  chiefly 
lived.  The  French  colonists  cared  little  for  farming,  raising 
only  produce  enough  for  their  own  need ;  their  chief  wish  was 
to  conduct  the  fur  trade 2  and  explore  the  wilderness. 

1  In  traveling  through  the  interior  of  the  continent,  the  French  made  much 
use  of  the  "portage"  paths  which  the  Indians  had  from  early  days  established 
between  the  headwaters  of  streams  flowing  in  opposite  directions.    By  means 
of  these  they  readily  passed  back  and  forth  between  waters  flowing  into  the 
drainage  system  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  those 
waters  that  reach  the  sea  through  the  Mississippi  River.    (See  the  map  of  the 
principal  portage  paths,  on  page  35.) 

2  Furs  were  then  very  fashionable  in  Europe.   Wherever  the  early  explorers 


Painting  by  J.  L.  G.  Ferris.  Courtesy,  Glen  Falls  Insurance  Co. 

CHAMPLAIN'S   FIGHT   WITH   THE  IROQUOIS 

This  probably  occurred  a  little  north  of  where  Fort  Ticonderoga  was 
afterwards  built 


34  THE  PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

(b)  The  French  often  married  Indian  wives,  and  mingled 
with  the  natives  like  brothers.  On  the  other  hand,  English 
men  did  not  hide  their  opinion  that  they  belonged  to  a  su 
perior  race,  for  which  the  red  men  would  have  to  make  room. 
The  natives  were  proud  and  did  not  relish  this  treatment; 
so  most  of  them  at  first  bitterly  hated  the  English,  although 
in  later  years  they  realized  that  the  latter  nearly  always 
treated  them  with  fairness. 

35.  Fur-trade   posts.  At   convenient    points   along   the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  New  France,  the  fur  traders  built  small 
warehouses  of  logs  or  stone,  in  which  to  store  their  furs. 
Sometimes  the  warehouse  was  a  little  fort,  or  "  post,"  with 
a  few  soldiers  to  protect  the  traders  and   their  property 
against  unruly  Indians  who  might  seek  to  rob  or  molest 
them.  In  time  there  came  to  be  a  long  line  of  these  posts, 
sometimes  several  days'  journey  apart,  extending  all  the 
way  from  Quebec  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  up  the  Great  Lakes 
by  way  of  Detroit,  Mackinac,  and  Green  Bay,  and  down 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  to  New  Orleans  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.1    Few  of  them  were  strong  enough  to  repel 
a  civilized  foe ;  but  as  a  rule  they  could  resist  the  attacks 
of  savages,  who  had  no  artillery.   From  such  posts  the 
traders  would   roam   through  the  vast  regions  of  Canada 
and  the  country  west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  barter 
ing  with  the  Indians,  and  often  meeting  with  thrilling  ad 
ventures. 

36.  Jesuit  missionaries.    Among  the  brave  men  who 
traveled  most  widely  in  New  France  were  the  members  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  called  Jesuits,  who  sought  to  convert 
the  Indians  to  Christianity.   Inprder  to  do  this,  the  black- 

(especiaily  the  French  and  the  English)  went,  they  asked  the  natives  to  bring 
them  furs,  and  gave  them  in  exchange  gayly  colored  glass  beads,  cheap  rings 
and  other  ornaments  of  brass,  iron  kettles  and  axes,  cloths,  blankets,  and 
firearms,  articles  which  the  Indians  greatly  coveted.  This  trade  soon  became 
the  principal  occupation  of  the  people  of  New  France. 

1  Small  villages  grew  up  outside  the  walls  of  many  of  these  old  French  posts, 
and  later  some  of  them  became  American  towns  of  importance.  Detroit,  Macki 
nac,  and  Green  Bay,  for  instance,  were  important  and  strongly  built  posts,  and 
guarded  the  entrance  to  large  regions  of  fur-bearing  wilderness. 


FRENCH   DISCOVERIES   AND   SETTLEMENTS      35 

gowned  Fathers l  lived  in  native  villages  far  in  the  depths  of 
the  forest,  learning  the  daily  life  and  manners  of  the  red  man. 
In  the  face  of  the  gravest  dangers,  the  Jesuits  made  long 
journeys  into  the  wilderness,  seeking  new  tribes  to  instruct; 
and  thus  they  often  visited  regions  that  no  other  white  men 
had  yet  seen.  Often  they  were  very  badly  treated  by  the 
wild  men  whom  they  sought  to  help,  and  suffered  terribly 


+  Forts  =  Portages 

MAP  OF  FRENCH  FORTS  AND  PORTAGE  ROUTES 

from  starvation  and  miseries  of  every  sort ;  some  were  even 
put  to  death  by  the  savages,  with  cruel  tortures. 

37.  The  French  explore  the  Mississippi.  Father  Mar- 
quette,  whose  little  chapel  was  on  the  Straits  of  Mackinac, 
is  the  best  known  of  these  Jesuit  missionaries.  In  1673 
he  set  out  in  company  with  Louis  Jolliet,2  who  had  already 
won  fame  as  an  official  explorer,  to  find  the  south-flowing 
Mississippi,  about  which  the  Indians  had  told  him,  and  to 

1  The  Indians  called  them  "black  gowns,"  because  of  their  uniform,  a  long 
black  robe. 

2  Marquette  was  a  native  of  France.   While  upon  this  famous  expedition  he 
became  ill  and  spent  the  next  winter  at  a  Jesuit  mission  in  Wisconsin.    In  the 
following  spring  (1674)  ne  returned  to  preach  to  the  Illinois  Indians,  but  had  to 


36  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

preach  Christianity  to  tribes  along  its  banks.  The  two  ex 
plorers,  with  five  Frenchmen  to  help  them  paddle  their 
canoes,  left  Mackinac  in  May,  "  fully  resolved,"  writes  the 
gentle  Marquette  in  his  journal,  "  to  do  and  suffer  every 
thing  for  so  glorious  an  undertaking." 

Their  course  lay  across  Lake  Michigan,  up  Green  Bay 
and  Fox  River,  and  down  the  Wisconsin  River,  until,  near 
the  present  town  of  Prairie  du  Chien,  the  broad  current  of 
the  Mississippi  was  discovered,1  flowing  between  high  and 
heavily  wooded  bluffs —  forming  one  of  the  most  charming 
scenes  in  America.  Amid  many  perils  from  swirling  eddies 
and  from  fierce  tribes  who  had  never  before  seen  Europeans, 
the  explorers  now  voyaged  down  the  Mississippi  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  Here  they  turned  back ;  for  they  had 
heard  that  Spaniards  were  exploring  the  north  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  they  wished  to  avoid  meeting  them. 
Late  in  the  autumn,  the  two  venturesome  Frenchmen 
reached  Lake  Michigan  by  way  of  the  Illinois  River  and  the 
portage  route  now  occupied  by  the  great  city  of  Chicago. 

38.  La  Salle's  explorations.  The  greatest  explorer  in  New 
France  was  La  Salle, 2  who  traveled  —  chiefly  in  canoes 

hurry  home  toward  Mackinac,  because  his  illness  broke  out  again.  He  died  on 
the  journey  (May  18,  1675),  and  was  buried  at  the  mouth  of  Pere  Marquette 
River,  where  is  now  Ludington,  Michigan. 

Jolliet  was  born  at  Quebec.  As  a  youth  he  was  trained  to  be  an  explorer,  and 
no  man  in  New  France  knew  better  the  Indians  and  the  life  of  the  forest.  When 
the  exploration  of  the  Mississippi  was  completed,  he  started  by  canoe  for  Que 
bec,  with  his  maps  and  reports  of  the  expedition.  But  in  descending  the  fierce 
rapids  at  Lachine,  just  above  Montreal,  his  canoe  was  upset,  he  was  nearly 
drowned,  and  all  his  papers  were  lost.  In  after  years  he  explored  Labrador. 

1  Over  a  hundred  years  before,  Spaniards  had  discovered  the  lower  part  of 
the  river;  but  Marquette  and  Jolliet  did  not  know  of  this.   The  Spanish  dis 
covery  did  not  lead  to  any  results,  so  that  the  river  was  soon  forgotten  by  white 
men.  The  French  discoverers,  however,  were  at  once  followed  by  other  French 
men;  and  soon  the  Mississippi  became  widely  known. 

2  He  was  born  in  France,  but  came  to  Canada  when  twenty-five  years  old. 
and  next  year  began  his  Western  explorations.   Although  he  was  a  shy,  stern, 
proud  man,  he  was  much  liked  by  the  Indians  and  a  few  followers;  but  he  made 
few  friends  among  white  people. 

La  Salle 's  most  constant  friend  and  companion  was  Henry  de  Tonty,  a 
young  Italian  soldier.  Tonty  had  great  talent  and,  though  kind  and  gentle, 
was  a  bold,  adventurous  man.  Having  lost  his  right  hand  in  a  European  battle, 
he  wore  in  its  place  one  of  metal,  which  much  astonished  the  Indians,  who  obeyed 
him  as  though  he  were  their  own  chief. 


FRENCH   DISCOVERIES  AND   SETTLEMENTS    37 

but  sometimes  for  long  distances  on  foot  —  through  a  large 
part  of  the  Mississippi  Basin,1  fighting  Indians,  building 
fur-trade  posts,  and  collecting  furs.  His  object  was  to  com 
plete  the  explorations  made  by  Marquette  and  Jolliet,  and 
to  add  to  New  France  the  broad  and  fertile  region  lying  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Such  expeditions 
through  the  then  untrodden  wilderness  of  North  America 
were  enormously  costly  and  difficult,  and  La  Salle  was  obliged 
to  carry  on  the  fur  trade  to  meet  his  expenses. 

After  many  trials  he  succeeded,  in  1682,  in  descending  the 
Mississippi  to  its  mouth.  There  he  erected  a  cross  and  dis 
played  the  French 
flag  and  coat  of 
arms;  2  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  won 
dering  savages,  in 
the  name  of  his  sov 
ereign  he  took  pos 
session  of  the  entire 
Mississippi  Basin 
and  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  To  this 
country  he  gave  the 
name  "Louisiana," 
in  honor  of  his  king, 
Louis  XIV.  But  the  difficulties  were  so  great  and  his  plans 
so  ambitious  and  costly  that  La  Salle  lost  his  own  fortune 
and  all  the  money  he  could  borrow.  A  colony  that  he 
planted  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  failed  miserably,  and  on  his 
retreat  northward  through  Texas  he  himself  was  killed, 
in  1687,  by  some  of  his  mutinous  followers.3 

1  The  "basin"  of  a  river  is  the  entire  region  drained  by  that  river,  also  by 
its  tributaries  and  all  their  branches,  large  and  small. 

*  The  French  coat  of  arms  was  at  that  time  a  representation  of  the  heads  of 
lilies  (fleur-de-lis).  These,  La  Salle  had  had  engraved  on  a  metal  plate,  which 
he  nailed  to  a  post. 

3  Father  Hennepin,  a  Franciscan  monk,  was  with  La  Salle  in  1680;  and  the 
latter  sent  him  with  two  other  Frenchmen  to  visit  the  upper  waters  of  the 


Painting  by  J.  N.  Marchand 

LA  SALLE   TAKING   POSSESSION   OF  THE 
MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 


38  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

39.  Founding  of  Louisiana.  It  was  not  until  1699  that 
La  Salle's  plans  for  founding  a  colony  in  Louisiana  could  be 
carried  out  by  the  French.  In  that  year  a  daring  French 
Canadian,  Iberville,  succeeded  in  planting  a  permanent 
settlement  at  Biloxi.  Nineteen  years  later  New  Orleans 
was  founded  by  his  brother,  Bienville.  For  many  years 
Bienville  wisely  governed  the  province,  which  then  com 
prised  all  the  southern  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  as 
well  as  the  country  lying  to  the  west  of  the  river  itself.1 

By  this  time  the  French  had  established  three  important 
cities  in  North  America  —  New  Orleans  in  the  south,  and 
Montreal  and  Quebec  in  Canada. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  were  the  two  chief  motives  of  French  explorations  in  America? 

2.  Compare  French  motives  of  exploration  with  Spanish  motives. 

3.  Trace  on  a  map  the  journey  of  Marquette. 

4.  Thus  far,  in  the  text,  four  nations  have  made  discoveries  or  explorations 
in  the  New  World.    Indicate  on  the  globe  or  map  the  regions  claimed 
by  each,  because  of  these  explorations. 

5.  Sketch  a  map  of  North  America,  and  write  the  following  names  in  the 
places  associated  with  them  in  history:   Balboa,  Cabot,  Champlain, 
Coronado,  De  Soto,  Hudson,  Jolliet  and  Marquette,  La  Salle,  Ponce 
de  Leon. 

6.  Show  on  the  map  the  claims  of  the  Spanish,  the  French,  and  the  Eng 
lish.   Point  out  the  places  or  regions  where  these  claims  conflict. 

7.  Draw  a  map  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  their  outlet ;  write  on  each  lake  the 
date  of  its  discovery. 

8.  What  use  did  the  explorers  make  of  rivers? 

9.  Of  what  other  persons,  previously  mentioned,  do  the  French  mission 
aries  remind  you? 

10.  Why  did  fur  trading  not  lead  to  fixed  settlements? 

11.  Make  a  table  showing  the  French  discoveries,  explorations,  and  settle 
ments.    It  should  indicate:  (a)  the  name  of  the  place  or  region;  (b)  the 
date  or  dates;  (c)  the  name  of  the  discoverer  or  explorer;  (d)  the  results. 

Mississippi.  First  of  all  Europeans,  these  three  reached  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
where  Minneapolis  now  is.  After  being  captured  by  Indians,  they  were  rescued 
by  Duluth,  another  famous  French  explorer  (for  whom  the  city  of  Duluth 
was  named),  who  had  a  large  fur  trade  in  the  great  region  around  the  head  of 
Lake  Superior  and  we  )  respected  and  obeyed  by  thousands  of  fierce  savages. 
1  Throughout  half  }  century  Louisiana  and  much  of  the  Canadian  North 
west  was  explored  b*  French  soldiers  and  fur  traders. 


FRENCH   DISCOVERIES  AND   SETTLEMENTS    39 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Think  of  yourself  as  Tonty,  the  friend  of  La  Salle.    Write  a  letter  to 
the  French  King  briefly  telling  of  the  services  of  La  Salle  to  France, 
emphasizing  his  wonderful  courage  and  untiring  zeal. 

2.  Father  Hennepin  looks  into  the  future  and  believes  that  some  day 
there  will  be  a  city  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls.    He  talks  over  the  advan 
tages  of  a  city  here  with  his  companions.  What  city  came  to  be  planted 
there? 

3.  Champlain's  nephew  in  France  gives  an  interesting  account  to  his 
classmates  of  the  wonderful  exploits  of  his  uncle  in  America.    Write 
what  he  said,  remembering  the  beautiful  lake,  the  skirmish  with  the 
Iroquois,  the  abundance  of  furs,  and  the  hairbreadth  escapes  in  the 
wild  forests. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Early  French  settlements. 

2.  Champlain  extends  the  boundaries  of  New  France. 

3.  Relations  with  the  Indians. 

4.  French  fur  trade  in  North  America. 

5.  Jesuit  missionaries. 

6.  Marquette  and  Jolliet  on  the  upper  M  ississippL 

7.  La  Salle's  explorations. 

8.  Louisiana  founded. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   INDIANS 

40.  Three  great  groups.  It  is  probable  that  when  Euro 
peans  first  came  to  our  country,  not  over  two  hundred 
thousand  Indians  dwelt  within  its  borders.1  There  were 
three  groups  of  tribes  living  east  of  the  Mississippi  River:  - 

(a)  Most  numerous  were   the  Algonquian,2  who  occu 
pied  the  greater  part  of  the  country  north  of  Kentucky 
and  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Atlantic,  as  well 
as  most  of  Canada. 

(b)  The  Iroquois  3  lived    principally  south  and  east  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  within  the  present  States  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania. 

(c)  The  Southern  group,  or  Muskogee,4  dwelt  south  of 
the  Tennessee  River. 

The  Dakota,  or  Sioux,  roamed  over  the  treeless  plains 
lying  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Pueblo  group,  whom 
Coronado  visited,  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  region  now 
divided  into  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Besides,  there  were 
a  number  of  small  groups  living  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  along  the  Pacific  Coast. 

1  Most  people  suppose  that  the  Indians  have  decreased  in  numbers,  since 
Columbus's  day;  yet  there  are  to-day  probably  quite  as  many  Indians,  all  told, 
within  the  present  United  States,  as  there  ever  were.    Some  of  the  tribes  have 
nearly  if  not  wholly  died  out ;  but  now  that  their  methods  of  living  are  im 
proved  and  they  are  no  longer  allowed  by  our  Government  to  go  to  war  with 
each  other,  the  total  Indian  population  seems  to  be  somewhat  on  the  increase. 

2  Among  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Algonquian  tribes  were  the  Chippewa, 
Delaware,  Fox,  Massachusetts,  Miami,  Narragansett,  Ottawa,  Potawatomi, 
Sauk,  Shawnee,  and  Wampanoag. 

3  The  principal  Iroquois  tribes  were  the  Cayuga,  Mohawk,  Oneida,  Onon- 
daga,  and  Seneca;  these  were  often  called  "The  Five  Nations  of  New  York." 
The  Huron,  Erie,  Tuscarora,  and  Cherokee  were  also  related  to  the  Iroquois. 
By  the  time  of  our  Revolutionary  War,  the  Tuscarora  had  joined  the  Iroquois 
Confederacy,  which  after  this  was  called  "The  Six  Nations." 

4  The  Muskogee  included  the  Chickasaw,  Choctaw,  Creek,  and  Seminole 
tribes. 


THE   INDIANS  41 

41.  Characteristics.    The  American  aborigine   is    com 
monly  called  the  "  red  man  "    -  but  he  is  not  really  red; 
the  color  of  his  skin  resembles  dark  copper.    He  has  long, 
coarse,  black  hair;  small,  dark  eyes;  high  cheek  bones;  and 
is  likely  to  be  rather  tall  and  thin.    He  walks  quickly  and 
cautiously,  like  a  wild  animal.    Wearing  his  moccasins,  he 
can  step  so  carefully  upon  the  dry  twigs  and  branches  of 
the  forest  that  he  makes  no  more  noise  than  he  would  if 
crawling  through  grass. 

In  the  early  days,  the  Indian  was  trained  from  child 
hood  to  know  intimately  the  habits  of  birds  and  animals, 
so  that  he  might  be  successful  in  hunting  and  fishing;  but 
especially  did  he  learn  how  to  fight  and  defend  himself 
against  his  enemies. 

He  was  polite  and  hospitable  to  his  friends ;  but  he  was 
merciless  to  his  enemies,  and  he  used  to  believe  that  no 
cruelty  was  too  severe  for  a  captive.1  In  council,  or  when 
strangers  were  present,  he  was  dignified  and  reserved,  being 
too  proud  to  show  curiosity  or  emotion;  but  around  his 
own  fire  he  was  much  given  to  rude  talk,  joking,  and  loud 
laughter. 

When  living  in  the  wilderness  the  Indian  protected  his 
family  from  enemies  and  hunted  and  fished  for  their  benefit. 
But  when  he  was  neither  fighting  nor  seeking  food  his  life 
was  one  of  idleness;  for  all  other  work  fell  to  his  squaws  (the 
women),  who  built  the  wigwam,  cultivated  his  small  crops, 
hauled  firewood  and  water,  cooked  the  meals,  cared  for  the 
wigwam  and  the  children,  and,  when  the  tribe  was  on  the 
march  to  other  hunting-grounds,  carried  the  wigwam  and  all 
the  other  family  possessions.  Yet  women  had  much  power 
over  the  councils  of  the  tribe,  and  they  owned  both  the  wig 
wams  and  the  children. 

42.  Religion.  The  Indian  supposed  that  earth,  air,  sky, 
and  water  contain  both  good  and  bad  spirits,  called  "  mani- 

1  When,  however,  as  not  seldom  happened,  he  took  a  fancy  to  his  captive 
and  adopted  him  as  a  son  or  brother,  to  take  the  place  of  one  that  had  been 
killed,  the  prisoner  was  kindly  treated. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 


tos,"  and  that  these  controlled  all  of  his  affairs.  He  thought 
that  the  smaller  manitos  are  directed  by  a  "  great  spirit," 
who  looks  after  all  mankind.  In  order  to  please  these  imag 
inary  manitos  and  their  great  spirit,  he  made  sacrifices  of 
food,  tobacco,  or  other  articles;  and  for  the  same  purpose  he 
held  dances,  feasts,  and  fasts  in  their  honor. 

43.  Mounds.  Long  before  the  white  men  came,  a  few 
tribes,  especially  in  our  North  Central  States,  had  a  curious 
custom  of  erecting  large  mounds  of  earth,  some  of  which 
must  have  taken  years  to  build.  Most  of  these  mounds  were 
round,  and  were  used  as  burial  places;  but  many  others 
were  made  in  the  shapes  of  birds,  beasts,  and  reptiles,  the 
supposed  spirits  of  which  were  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  natives;  and  some  were  walls  for  protection  against 

enemies.  At 
many  places 
these  old  mounds 
can  still  plainly 
be  seen.1 

44.  Villages 
and  houses.  The 
Indians  often 
built  several  vil 
lages  quite  near 
together;  these 
were  either  in 
the  dense  woods 
or  on  wide- 


From  JJevei  ley's  History  of  Virginia 

AN    INDIAN    VILLAGE 


The  palisade,  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  incloses  nuiherous  cabins  (wig 
wams).  Within   the  inclosure,  also,  is  a  water  supply  and  a  place  for 
afire.  The  outside  fields  of  corn  and  tobacco  are  held  in  common.  The 
circle  of  posts  surrounding  the  cabin  in  the  foreground  is  the  scene  of     Spreading 
ceremonial  dances 

nes,  and  usually 

by  the  shores  of  lakes  and  rivers.  Hundreds  of  our  American 
towns  are  upon  sites  first  occupied  by  Indian  villages,  and 
many  still  bear  their  aboriginal  names.2  But  for  the  most 

1  Thousands  of  them  may  be  found  throughout  the  Mississippi  Basin,  es 
pecially  along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes.  Some  of  the  largest  are  at  Mounds- 
ville,  West  Virginia,  and  Cahokia,  Illinois.   Ohio  and  Wisconsin  are  noted  for 
their  fine  "effigies"  —  that  is,  mounds  in  the  shape  of  animals,  etc. 

2  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Spokane,  Oklahoma  City,  Topeka,  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 


THE   INDIANS  43 

part,  the  great  North  American  wilderness  was  unoccupied 
by  permanent  dwellings ;  and  over  its  wide,  empty  spaces 
the  warriors  roamed,  hunted,  and  fought. 

An  Indian's  house  was  generally  a  portable  tent  or  hut, 
called  "  wigwam,"  "  tepee,"  or  "  lodge,"  made  of  slender 
poles  placed  in  a  circle,  with  their  points  tied  together  at 
the  top.  This  frame  was  covered 

with  skins  of  animals,  rush-mats,  |  <|fe 

or  sheets  of  the  bark  of  certain         .J|p^          7 
trees.    Some   tribes   had   "  lon^ 
houses  "  built  of  heavy  straight          |  j|         4-' 
poles,    covered    with    layers    of  A^ 

bark.    Such    a    dwelling    would  !'!Jit 

accommodate    several    families,  } •:&' 

each    of    which    would     gather  i,  T 

around  its  own  fire. 

45.  Food,  tools,  and  clothing. 
At  most  of  the  villages  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  the  savages  cul 
tivated  fields  of  corn,  pumpkins, 

squashes,     beans,    watermelons,      AN  ^DIAN  CHIEF  IN  WAR 
and  sunflowers,  the  seed  of  these 

last  being  used  as  food ;  and  in  some  regions  tobacco  was 
grown  for  smoking.  They  ate  also  wild  fruits,  nuts,  edible 
roots,  and  wild  rice;  and  the  wilderness  supplied  them  plen 
tifully  with  game  and  fish. 

They  made  arrowheads,  spearheads,  axes,  knives,  and 
other  tools  and  weapons  from  stone  and  copper;  they  also 
moulded  rude  pottery,  and  wove  baskets  and  mats  from 
rushes  and  tall  grasses.  The  Indian  canoe,  made  either  from 
the  bark  of  birch  or  elm,  was  a  light  and  handsome  boat ;  but 
some  of  their  boats  were  logs  hollowed  out  by  the  use  of  fire.1 

Such  clothing  as  they  needed  was  made  mostly  from  skins 
of  wild  animals.  Wampum,  or  strings  of  beads  made  from 

Oshkosh,  Kalamazoo,  Saginaw,  Kankakee,  Chattanooga,  Poughkeepsie,  and 
Pawtucket  are  examples. 

1  The  whites  called  a  canoe  of  this  latter  kind  a  "dugout." 


44  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

shells,  was  their  principal  ornament;  among  many  tribes, 
this  served  also  as  money.  Another  way  of  adorning  them 
selves  was  by  means  of  colored  earths,  with  which  they 
painted  their  faces  and  bodies  black,  red,  green,  or  white.1 
Warriors  were  fond  of  wearing  eagle  feathers  in  their  hair, 
one  feather  for  each  enemy  killed  in  combat. 

46.  The  Indian  in  War.    The  Indian's  life  was  a  contin 
ual  struggle  for  existence.    He  chased   enemies  from  the 
hunting-grounds  of  his  own  tribe ;  yet,  when  food  was  scarce, 
he  boldly  invaded  the  territory  of  other  tribes,  and  this  led 
to  frequent  wrars,  in  which  the  weapons  employed  were 
chiefly  bows  and  arrows  and  spears.    He  was  so  skillful  a 
fighter  that  the  white  man  often  found  him  difficult  to 
conquer. 

Indian  war  parties  would  make  rapid  journeys  for  rob 
bery,  murder,  and  scalping.2  After  quickly  striking  their 
blow  against  an  enemy's  camp  or  cabin,  often  in  the  dead 
of  night,  and  gathering  their  prisoners  and  scalps,  they 
would  glide  back  again  into  the  dark  forest  that  hid  them 
from  sight. 

In  fighting,  the  Indian  tried  to  do  as  much  harm  to  the 
enemy  as  possible,  yet  at  the  same  time  to  keep  out  of  dan 
ger  himself.  He  did  not  like  to  "  fight  in  the  open,"  where 
he  was  exposed  to  view.  The  greatest  hero  in  the  tribe  was 
he  who  collected  the  most  scalps,  no  matter  by  what  treach 
ery  he  obtained  them.  The  warrior  therefore  skulked  in  the 
woods  and  grass  as  does  a  wild  beast  before  springing  on 
its  prey,  and  often  attacked  defenseless  women  and  children. 
Europeans  called  such  conduct  cowardly;  the  Indian,  how 
ever,  had  no  lack  of  courage,  only  it  was  shown  in  other 
ways. 

47.  What  the  Indians  taught  the  white  men.  The  In- 

1  The  color  and  shape  of  these  markings  meant  many  things;  they  showed 
to  what  tribe  the  savage  belonged,  some  sorrow  or  joy  that  he  felt,  or  his  inten 
tion  to  go  to  war  or  to  do  some  other  great  deed. 

2  The  young  Indian  was  not  allowed  to  call  himself  a  warrior  until  he  had 
cut  from  some  fallen  enemy  a  small,  round  piece  of  skin  towards  the  top  of  the 
head,  with  the  hair  hanging  to  it.   This  was  called  the  "scalp  lock." 


THE   INDIANS  45 

dians  taught  Europeans  how  to  raise  and  use  tobacco,  which 

became  a  profitable  crop  in  some  of  the  English  colonies. 

The  maize  that  the  Indians  grew  was  at  once  adopted 

by  the  whites,  who  called  it  "  Indian  corn,"  to  distinguish 

it  from  the  cereals  of  the  Old  World.   This  has  become  one 

of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  our  North  American 

crops.  We  owe,  also,  to  the  aborigines  the  common  potato. 

The  Indian  showed  the  settler  where  to  find  in  the  forest 

edible  roots,  nuts,  and  fruits,  how  to  gather  and  cook  wild 

rice,  and  the  way  to  prepare  the  hominy  and  parched  corn 

that  often  kept  white  fam- 

ilies    from    starving.     The 

"  pale-face"  hunter  learned 

much  from  the  savage  about 

the  habits  of  birds  and  wild 

animals,  the  paths  through 

the  wilderness,  and  the  best 

methods  of  the  chase.  The  . 

Indian's  birch-bark  canoe  ^*" 

became  popular  with   the 

conquerors,  as  did  also  his    HOW  THE  IND^SESSIGNED  THEIR 

quickly  built  wigwams  and  Each drew the animal  or bird  which  had  been  selected 

cVifil-f-Ckt-      Viiifc       TVifi      ndti\7-p>       as  the  emblem  of  his  family.  The  name  of  the  signer 
Iter     IlULb.  native      and  the  words  "UH  mark  "were  added  by  a  ctork 

"  medicine    man  "    taught 

the  civilized  pioneer  several  methods  of  healing,  especially 

of  the  kind  of  wounds  received  while  hunting  or  fighting. 

48.  Aid  given  to  white  settlers.  Sometimes  friendly  na 
tives  would  save  a  white  village  from  attacks  by  war  par 
ties  coming  from  a  distance;  often,  pioneers  were  saved 
from  starvation  by  gifts  of  food  from  the  tribesmen;  and 
the  Indian  frequently  acted  as  guide  to  exploring  parties. 
If  the  red  man  were  treated  well,  he  often  befriended  the 
white. 

49.  The  pioneers'  view  of  the  Indians.  When  Europeans, 
especially  the  English,  first  came  to  America,  they  began 
to  cut  down  the  trees,  to  make  farms,  and  to  plant  towns. 
This  frightened  off  the  game  on  which  the  Indians  chiefly 


46  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

lived;  and  it  began  to  look  as  though  the  aborigines  would 
soon  have  no  food  left.  It  was  not  long  before  the  new 
comers  drove  away  the  natives  themselves  and  often  acted 
with  unnecessary  cruelty  toward  them.  This  made  the 
Indians  angry;  and  at  times  they  fought  the  intruders, 
hoping  thus  to  regain  their  hunting-grounds.  But,  in  the 
end,  the  white  man  always  won. 

Our  pioneer  forefathers  lived  at  a  time  when  even  white 
men  did  not  treat  each  other  as  kindly  as  they  do  now.  They 
believed  that  the  Indian  was  a  cowardly,  treacherous,  wild 
man,  and  must,  therefore,  like  the  wild  animals,  stand  aside 
for  the  stronger  and  better  race.  They  thought  that,  by 
driving  out  the  native  inhabitants,  they  were  doing  a  real 
service  to  civilization.1 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Find  several  Indian  names  in  your  State. 

2.  Give  several  words  in  common  use  derived  from  the  Indians. 

3.  In  what  respects  does  the  white  man's  idea  of  honor  in  war  differ  from 
that  of  the  savage? 

4.  What  effect  did  contact  with  the  white  man  have  on  the   customs 
and  mode  of  life  of  the  Indian? 

5.  What  did  the  white  man  learn  from  the  Indian? 

6.  Name  a  common  food,  a  plant  used  as  a  luxury,  and  a  traveling  ve 
hicle  first  used  by  the  Indians. 

7.  Find  out  how  many  Indians  are  now  living  in  the  United  States  and 
report  to  the  class.   How  does  this  number  compare  with  the  number 
of  Indians  in  the  country  in  the  sixteenth  century? 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Perhaps  you  have  heard  a  story,  or  legend,  of  the  Indians  that  has 
never  been  printed.    If  so,  tell  it  or  write  it. 

2.  Write  a  brief  account  of  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  or  of  any  other  of 
the  "  Leather  Stocking  Tales  "  byjames  Fenimore  Cooper,  or  of  Ramona, 
by  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  or  The  Story  of  Old  Fort  London,  by  Charles 
Egbert  Craddock.    Tell  especially  what  you  think  of  the  description 

1  Most  of  the  Indian  tribes  are  now  forced  by  our  Government  to  live  in 
small  districts  set  apart  for  them,  called  "  reservations. "  While  there  are  several 
such  reservations  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  the  majority  of  them  are  in  the 
region  to  the  west  of  it. 


REVIEW  47 

of  the  Indian  in  the  book  you  select,  and  the  author's  view  of  the 
Indian's  relations  with  the  whites. 

Give  an  Indian's  thoughts  as  he  looks  on  the  scene  suggested  in  this 
stanza  from  Stevenson's  poem  The  Displaced:  — 

As  when  the  Indian  to  Dakota  comes, 

Or  farthest  Idaho,  and,  where  he  dwelt  — 

He  with  his  clan,  a  humming  city  finds, 

Thereon  awhile  amazed  he  stares. 


CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Three  groups  of  Indian  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

2.  Characteristics,  religion,  and  mode  of  life  of  Indians. 

3.  The  Indian  in  war. 

4.  The  Indian's  relation  to  the  white  man. 

5.  The  pioneers'  view  of  the  Indians. 


REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY 

IN  the  fifteenth  century  the  world  was  astir  with  new  id?as. 
The  discovery  of  gunpowder  had  revolutionized  war,  the  invention 
of  the  printing-press  was  spreading  knowledge  abroad,  the  com 
pass  and  the  astrolabe  made  it  safe  to  sail  into  unknown  seas. 
Finally,  in  the  closing  years  of  that  century,  came  the  discovery 
of  America,  the  land  of  opportunity. 

The  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  threatened  the 
trade  routes  over  which  the  goods  of  Asia  came  to  Europe.  Men 
began,  in  consequence,  to  hope  that  a  sea  route  to  India  might  be 
found. 

In  1492  Columbus,  an  Italian,  believed  that  the  world  was 
round  and  that,  by  sailing  west  from  Europe,  one  might  reach 
Asia.  Procuring  aid  with  much  difficulty  from  Spain,  he  set  out 
with  three  ships  upon  the  great  unknown  waters  to  prove  his 
theory.  He  sailed  west  until  he  found  an  island  of  the  Bahamas. 
Afterward  he  discovered  Cuba  and  Haiti,  and,  on  a  later  voyage, 
the  continent  of  South  America ;  but  he  believed  them  all  to  be 
outlying  lands  of  India. 

The  countries  of  Europe  began  sending  out  explorers  to  these 
new  lands.  Before  Columbus  saw  South  America,  the  Cabots  had 
discovered  North  America  for  England. 

Americus  Vespucius  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Geo 
graphers  gave  his  name,  first  to  that  country,  then  to  the  whok 
continent. 


48  THE   PERIOD   OF   DISCOVERY 

More  than  twenty  years  after  Columbus  first  saw  the  New 
World,  the  Spaniard,  Balboa,  discovered,  in  1513,  the  Pacific 
Ocean  from  a  mountain  top  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  began 
to  be  realized  that  America  was  not  India,  but  men  still  thought 
of  it  as  a  barrier  between  Europe  and  Asia  and  continually  searched 
for  a  passage  through  it. 

In  1520  Magellan  sailed  through  the  straits  that  bear  his  name 
and  on  across  the  broad  Pacific.  Only  one  of  his  ships  got  back  to 
Spain.  For  the  first  time  men  had  sailed  around  the  world.  More 
than  half  a  century  later  this  feat  was  repeated  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  the  English  buccaneer. 

Men  did  not  guess  that  North  America  was  three  thousand 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  they  sought  for  a  northwest  passage 
through  it.  Cartier,  the  Frenchman,  believed  he  had  found  it 
when  he  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence.  Hudson,  an  Englishman, 
exploring  on  behalf  of  Holland,  was  searching  for  the  Northwest 
Passage  when  he  discovered,  in  1609,  the  Hudson  River. 

The  Spanish  discovered  the  Mississippi.  The  French  explored 
it  from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  To  the 
French  also  we  owe  our  first  knowledge  of  Lake  Champlain  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  The  Spanish,  on  their  part,  made  long  jour 
neys  through  what  is  now  the  southern  and  southwestern  part 
of  the  United  States. 

The  territory  now  occupied  by  the  United  States  was  once  held 
by  a  population  of  some  200,000  Indians.  These  Indians  had  per 
fected  the  arts  of  forest  warfare,  were  skillful  hunters,  and  had 
made  some  progress  in  agriculture.  In  spite  of  their  excessive 
cruelty,  there  was  much  that  was  attractive  about  their  char 
acter.  No  doubt  they  were  often  treated  with  great  injustice  by 
the  whites  at  a  time  when  the  world  had  little  idea  of  any  right 
but  the  rule  of  the  strong.  They  were,  however,  unable  to  make 
use  of  the  natural  resources  of  this  continent,  as  their  white  suc 
cessors  have  done. 


RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries*  vol.  I,  pp. 
35-40,  60-64,  81-88,  125-144.  Thwaites's  Colonies,  pp.  1-36.  Fiske's 
United  States,  pp.  1-55.  Channing's  Student's  United  Sta'es,  chap.  I.  Sparks's 
Expansion  of  American  People,  chaps,  i,  n.  Fiske's  Discovery  of  America, 
vol.  I,  chaps,  in,  v;  vol.  n,  pp.  2-18,  180-210;  and  New  France  and  New 
England,  chaps.  II,  iv.  Cheney's  European  Background  of  American  His 
tory,  chaps,  n-v.  Bourne's  Spain  in  America,  chaps,  iv,  v,  vu,  ix,  xi. 


REVIEW  49 

Thwaites's  France  in  America,  chaps.  I,  in-v.  Farrand's  Basis  of  American 
History,  chaps,  x,  xi,  xm-xvii.  Parkman's  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp. 
123-168,  180-222.  Grinnell's  Story  of  the  Indian.  Markham's  Columbus. 
Ober's  Cabot,  and  Magellan.  King's  De  Soto.  Sedgwick's  Champlain. 
Thwaites's  Marquette.  Parkman's  La  Salle. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book  of  American  History,  pp.  1-17,  96-98. 
Elson's  Child's  Guide  to  American  History.  Griffis's  Romance  of  Discovery. 
Sparks's  Famous  Explorers.  Foote's  Explorers  and  Founders  of  America. 
Me  Murray's  pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea  (for  Magellan,  Champlain,  and 
Cortez);  Pioneers  of  Mississippi  Valley  (for  De  Soto  and  Jolliet).  Tap- 
pan's  American  Hero  Stories,  pp.  1-37,  96-107.  Johnson's  World's  Dis 
coverers,  chaps.  l-v,  vni-x.  Baldwin's  Discovery  of  Old  Northwest. 
Brooks's  Story  of  the  Indian;  Columbus.  Moores's  Columbus.  Elton's 
Drake.  Bacon's  The  Boy's  Drake. 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Cooper's  Last  of  the  Mohicans.  Craddock's  Old  Fort 
London.  Jackson's  Ramona.  Kingsley's  Westward  Ho.  Parker's  Trail  of 
the  Sword.  Wallace's  Fair  God. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Catherwood's  Romance  of  Dollard;  Story  of  Tonty.  Henty 's 
Under  Drake  s  Flag;  By  Right  of  Conquest.  Jenks's  Ji-Shib  the  Ojibwa. 
Judd's  Wigwam  Stories.  Munroe's  Flamingo  Feather.  St.  Nicholas's  Indian 
Stories. 

POETRY 

Longfellow's  Hiawatha.  Joaquin  Miller's  Columbus. 


THE   PERIOD  OF   COLONIZATION 
CHAPTER  VI 

\ 

EARLIEST  ATTEMPTS   TO   SETTLE  VIRGINIA 

50.  America  a  land  of  opportunity.  At  the  opening  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  many  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
England,1  were  so  overcrowded  that  there  was  much  pov 
erty  and  distress,  with  few  chances  for  poor  people  to  im 
prove  their  condition.    To  them  the  discovery  of  America 
was  a  great  boon.    This  land  of  opportunity,  such  as  had 
never  before  been  opened  to  Europeans,  lay  awaiting  settle 
ment  and  development. 

51.  England  ready  to  colonize.  It  has  truly  been  said  that 
u  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  marks  the  open 
ing  event  in  the  history  of  the  United  States."     That  is, 
this  great  victory, 2  which  weakened  forever  Spanish  power 
upon  the  sea,  at  last  gave  to  England  her  opportunity  for 
colonizing  America. 

52.  Raleigh's  colonies.   Sir  Walter  Raleigh3  was  one  of 

1  Following  her  victories  over  Spain,  England's  commerce  grew  rapidly, 
and  her  merchants  and  manufacturers  became  very  rich.  But  it  was  a  hard  time 
for  English  working  people.    Wages  were  low,  prices  for  food  and  clothing  high, 
and  thousands  o-f  men  were  out  of  work.    The  chief  reason  for  this  state  of  af 
fairs  was  that  the  rich  landowners  were  turning  their  farms  into  sheep  pas 
tures,  in  order  to  produce  wool  for  the  great  weaving  industry  which  had  lately 
sprung  up  in  the  Netherlands,  and  fewer  men  were  needed  to  care  for  sheep  than 
to  cultivate  field  crops  and  attend  to  cattle.   There  was  not  enough  work  to 
support  the  population,  under  these  changed  conditions.   To  make  matters 
worse,  large  numbers  of  soldiers  were  returning  home  from  the  wars,  and  they 
also  were  looking  for  employment. 

2  See  page  27. 

3  Raleigh  was  born  in  England  about  1552,  and  while  still  a  youth  went  to 
fight  in  the  Netherlands.    He  soon  became  a  great  soldier  and  sailor.    One  of 
his  acquaintances  says  he  was  a  very  handsome  man,  "with  the  fancy  of  a  poet 
and  the  chivalry  of  a  soldier,  and  was  unrivaled  in  splendor  of  dress  and  equi 
page."  It  is  said  that  one  day,  seeingQueen  Elizabeth  out  walking,  with  a  muddy 
place  in  her  path,  he  gallantly  laid  down  his  fine  cloak  for  her  to  tread  upon. 


EARLIEST  ATTEMPTS  TO  SETTLE  VIRGINIA     51 


the  most  enterprising  and  valiant  of  England's  ship  captains. 
He  was  much  distressed  concerning  the  condition  and  dis 
content  of  the  working  people  among  his  countrymen,  and 
thought  that  he  knew  a  remedy.  It  was  his  belief  that  they 
would  have  a  much  better  chance  to  support  themselves  if 
sent  across  the  Atlantic  to  found  agricultural  colonies  in 
America,  where  they  could  get  land  for  almost  nothing.  He 
believed,  too,  that  such  colonies  might 
be  made  profitable  to  England. 

Having  obtained  the  necessary  per 
mission  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Raleigh 
sent  out  an  exploring  expedition  to 
North  America  in  1584.  So  excellent 
an  account  was  brought  back  of  the 
region  around  Pamlico  and  Albemarle 
Sounds,  that,  at  the  Queen's  sugges 
tion,  Raleigh  named  this  beautiful  new 
land  "  Virginia,"  in  honor  of  the 
"  virgin  queen  "  herself.1 

The  next  year  Raleigh  sent  over  to 
Virginia  a  colony  of  about  a  hundred 
men  and  women,  who  settled  on  Roa-    SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH 
noke  Island,  on  the  coast  of  what  is    From ,anold engraving, showing 

the  costume  of  the  time 

now   North   Carolina.     But,  like  the 
Spaniards,  these  first  English  settlers  wanted  only  to  ex 
plore  for  mines;  although  poor,  they  refused  to  labor  with 
their  hands,  so  they  nearly  starved,  and  at  last  returned 
disgusted  to  England. 

Again  and  again  did  Sir  Walter  try  to  plant  colonies  upon 
Roanoke  Island.  But  the  people  whom  he  sent  over  were 
not  earnest,  hard-working  folk,  such  as  are  needed  to  per- 

This  won  for  him  her  friendship.  In  1588  he  aided  in  defeating  the  Spanish  Ar 
mada,  and  in  later  years  attacked  and  pillaged  Spanish  towns  in  America.  Like 
so  many  other  great  men  of  his  age,  he  at  last  fell  from  royal  favor  and  was  be 
headed  in  London  (1618).  In  placing  his  head  upon  the  block,  he  said,  "This 
is  sharp  medicine,  but  is  a  sound  cure  for  all  diseases." 

1  The  name  was  given  by  Raleigh  to  a  very  much  larger  extent  of  country 
than  our  present  State  of  Virginia  —  indeed,  to  the  entire  region  between 
Canada  and  Florida. 


£2  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

form  pioneer  labor  in  new  lands;  moreover,  he  had  not 
money  enough  to  carry  out  his  plans.  His  settlements  there 
fore  failed.  The  last  one  was  attacked  by  Indians,  who  no 
doubt  killed  some  of  its  members  and  made  prisoners  of 
the  rest.  But  what  became  of  the  captives  nobody  really 
knows;  for  they  mysteriously  disappeared.1 

53.  The  father  of  English  settlement  in  America.  After 
expending  on  his  ill-fated  colonies  a  sum  of  money  that  in 
our  time  would  amount  to  over  a  million  dollars,  Raleigh 
sold  all  his  rights  in  Virginia  to  a  company  of  merchants.2 
He  himself  had  not  been  able  to  plant  a  permanent  settle 
ment,  but  he  had  attracted  the  serious  attention  of  the  best 
people  of  England  toward  this  country.  He  used  proudly 
to  prophesy,  "  I  shall  yet  live  to  see  it  an  English  nation." 
We  should  never  forget  that  he  was  the  father  of  English 
settlement  in  America.3 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  were  there  so  many  unemployed  in  England  in  Raleigh's  time? 

2.  What  was  Raleigh's  service  to  England?   To  America?  How  is  his 
name  perpetuated  in  the  United  States? 

3.  Explain:  "The  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  marks  the  opening 
event  in  the  history  of  the  United  States." 

1  In  this  colony  there  was  born,  in  August,  1587,  Virginia  Dare,  granddaugh 
ter  of  John  White,  the  Governor.  She  was  the  first  child  of  English  parents  born 
in  the  New  World.  A  few  days  after  her  birth  Governor  White  left  for  England. 
He  returned  some  years  later;  but  all  the  people,  including  his  daughter  and 
granddaughter,    had   disappeared.    On   one  of  the  trees  was  cut  the  word 
"Croatan,"  which  possibly  meant  that  the  colonists  had  gone  to  a  neighboring 
Indian  village  of  that  name;  but  in  a  long  search,  no  trace  of  them  was  found. 

2  Raleigh  introduced  tobacco  into  Great  Britain  from  Virginia.    He  had  be 
come  fond  of  smoking  this  American  weed,  but  at  first  did  not  venture  to  use 
it  in  public,  because  he  feared  that  his  friends  would  call  him  a  barbarian.   It  is 
said  that  one  day  his  Irish  serving-man  saw  smoke  coming  from  his  master's 
mouth,  and  thought  that  he  was  on  fire;  so  he  threw  a  pitcher  of  water  over  Ra 
leigh's  head  and  ran  off,  screaming  for  help  to  save  his  master  from  burning. 
After  a  time  the  great  sailor  introduced  tobacco  at  court,  and  at  once  it  became 
fashionable.     He  also  introduced  to  the  British,  potatoes  from  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  and  grew  them  on  his  fine  estate  near  Cork,  in  Ireland. 

3  Much  credit  is  also  due  to  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  who  in  1602  explored  our 
coast  from  Maine  southward  for  several  hundred  miles  and  landed  upon,  and 
named,  Cape  Cod.   His  enthusiastic  reports  did  much  to  influence  Englishmen 
in  favor  of  America. 


EARLIEST  ATTEMPTS   TO  SETTLE   VIRGINIA     53 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  are  walking  in  the  Queen's 
garden,  talking  about  Virginia.    Describe  the  scene.    Give  something 
of  the  conversation.   This  may  be  dramatized. 

2.  An  English  farm  tenant  has  been  ruined  by  sheep-farming.    He  is  ex 
plaining  to  his  wife  his  reasons  for  wishing  to  emigrate  to  America. 

3.  Write  a  dialogue  between  this  farmer  and  a  soldier  who  has  just  re 
turned  from  the  wars  and  is  seeking  work.    Dramatize  the  scene. 

CHAPTER   OUTLINE 

1.  England's  reasons  for  planting  colonies. 

2.  Raleigh's  attempts  at  colonization. 

3.  Raleigh,  the  father  of  the  English  settlement  in  America. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE   COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA 

54.  Two  companies  organized.  The  merchants  to  whom 
Raleigh  sold  his  rights  decided  to  make  a  fresh  attempt  to 
plant  American  colonies,  with  the  idea  of  gaining  large 
,^___  profits  for  themselves.  Ac 

cordingly  they  obtained  in 
1606  a  charter  from  King 
James  for  two  farming  and 
trading  companies  —  the 
London  Company  and  the 
Plymouth  Company  —  to 
operate  in  Virginia.  They 
believed  not  only  that  Vir 
ginia  held  great  riches  in 
gold  and  silver,  but  that  a 
thriving  commerce  would 
soon  spring  up  between  that 
country  and  England. 

To  the  London  Company 
the  King  gave  permission  to 
settle  on  a  strip  one  hundred 
miles  wide  along  the  sea- 
coast,  somewhere  between 
the  southern  boundary  of 


REGIONS   OPEN  TO  LONDON   AND 
PLYMOUTH    COMPANIES 


the  present  North  Carolina1 
and  the  mouth  of  Poto 
mac  River.  The  Plymouth 

Company  was  to  make  its  first  settlement  on  a  similar 
strip  between  Manhattan  Island  and  Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  map  that  under  this  arrangement 

1  The  northern  boundary  of  the  Spanish  claim  in  Florida. 


THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  55 

there  was  an  unclaimed  district  about  two  hundred  miles 
wide.  The  charter  said  that  this  middle  region  might  be 
settled  upon  by  either  of  the  companies.1 

The  King  believed  that  Cabot's  discovery  gave  England 
the  right  to  the  whole  North  American  continent.  He  there 
fore  paid  no  heed,  in  the  charter,  to  the  fact  that  the  French 
had  recently  planted  the  settlement  of  Port  Royal  on  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  squarely  within  the  territory  now  given  to 
the  North  Virginia  colony.  This  led,  we  shall  see,  to  very 
serious  quarrels  between  the  English  and  the  French  colo 
nies  in  America. 

55.  Popular  interest  in  colonization.  So  extravagant  were 
the  tales  told  of  America's  wealth  in  precious  stories  and 
metals  that  there  was  now  no  lack  of  candidates  for  the 
honor  of  settling  Virginia.2    English  preachers  of  that  day 
did  not  know  how  prophetic  were  their  words  when  they 
declared  that  "  Virginia  was  a  door  that  God  had  opened 
to  England."  Still  less  did  the  would-be  pioneers,  eager  for 
gold  and  silver,  realize  the  hardships  that  lay  before  them 
in  the  New  World. 

56.  The  first  colonists.  In  1606,  the  London  Company 
sent  out  three  small  ships  with  a  hundred  and  five  colonists, 
who  were  expected  to  start  a  farming  settlement.   But  only 
twelve  of  the  party  were  farm  laborers.  There  were  several 
artisans;  but  among  them  were  "  jewelers,  gold-refiners,  and 
a  perfumer,"  who  of  course  knew  nothing  about  farming. 
Most  of  the  passengers  were  "  gentlemen,"  a  class  that 
scorned  to  work  with  their  hands;  they  were  going  out  simply 
for  adventure,  expecting,  no  doubt,  to  make  their  fortunes 

1  But  it  was  ordered  by  the  King  that  their  colonies  must  not  be  less  than  a 
hundred  miles  apart  from  each  other. 

2  In  a  comedy  of  that  period  (called  Eastward  Ho,  acted  in  1605);  these  words 
are  spoken  about  Virginia  by  one  Captain  Seagull,  a  returned  sea-captain:  "I 
tell  thee,  gold  is  more  plentiful  there  than  copper  is  with  us.  ...  Why,  man,  all 
their  dripping-pans  .  .  .  are  pure  gold;  and  all  the  chains  with  which  they  chain 
up  their  streets  are  massy  gold  ;  all  the  prisoners  they  take  are  fettered  in  gold; 
and  for  rubies  and  diamonds  they  go  forth  on  holidays  and  gather  'em  by  the 
seashore  to  hang  on  their  children's  coats,  and  stick  in  their  children's  caps." 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  English  actually  believed  all  such  wild  state 
ments.   Seagull  exaggerates  greatly,  in  order  to  please  the  laughing  crowd. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 


in  a  very  short  time  and  return  to  England  to  enjoy  their 
wealth.  But,  perhaps,  worst  of  all  was  the  very  small  number 
of  both  women  and  children  to  make  homes  in  the  new 
land. 

57.  Founding  of   Jamestown.  At  last  the  adventurers 
sailed  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  whose  broad  waters  receive 

four  large  rivers.  Fifty 
miles  up  the  River 
James,  which  they 
named  for  their  King, 
the  colonists  found  "  a 
low  peninsula  half 
buried  in  the  tide  at 
high  water."  They 
selected  this  as  the 
site  of  their  new  home 
and,  landing  in  May, 
1607,  called  the  place 
Jamestown.  A  few 
poorly  made  huts 
were  soon  reared ;  and 
around  these  they 
built  a  stockade  of 
logs,  on  which  can 
non  were  mounted  as 
a  protection  against  the  Indians.1  They  had  chosen,  how 
ever,  an  .unfavorable  spot  for  their  settlement.  The  drink 
ing-water  was  bad,  there  was  little  food  to  be  found,  and 
the  weather  greatly  oppressed  them,  being  much  warmer 
than  they  had  known  in  England. 

By  an  important  article  in  the  Company's  charter  no  land 
was  to  be  given  to  the  settlers  for  a  period  of  five  years. 
All  products  were  to  be  brought  to  a  common  warehouse, 

1  Several  adventurous  men  rowed  up  the  James  River,  hoping  to  find  by  that 
path  a  passage  through  to  the  Pacific;  —  all  American  explorers  in  those  days 
were  eager  to  find  the  supposed  short-cut  route  to  Asia,  which  had  been  sought 
since  the  days  of  Columbus.  But  the  rowers  were  stopped  by  the  falls,  where 
Richmond  now  is,  and  turned  sadly  back. 


Fainting  by  G.  Stevenson,  in  the  John  M.  Smyth  School,  Chicago 

THE   LANDING   AT   JAMESTOWN 


THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA 


57 


and  the  people  were  to  be  given  what  the  officers  thought 
they  needed.  No  better  incentive  to  idleness  could  have  been 
devised ;  for  the  industrious  man  fared  no  better  under  this 
scheme  than  the  lazy  one,  and  no  person  had  anything  that 
he  could  call  his  own. 

The  result  was  that  the  majority  of  the  settlers  idled  away 
their  time  and  dreamed  of  the  fortunes  that  they  were  des 
tined  never  to  find.  At  first  the  savages  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Jamestown  gladly  sold  to  the  strangers  their  corn,  of 
which  they  raised  large  quantities,  for  articles  made  in  Eu 
rope  ;  but  some  of  the  whites  began  to  treat  them  badly,  and 
after  this  there  was  no  corn  to  spare  for  Englishmen.  Star 
vation  and  sickness  followed,  and  by  autumn  half  of  the  men 
were  dead.  One  of  the  survivors  wrote  an  account  of  this 
"  sorrowful  year,"  saying:  "  There  were  never  Englishmen 
left  in  a  foreign  country  in  such  misery  as  we  were  in  this 
new  discovered  Virginia.  ...  It  would  make  hearts  bleed 
to  hear  the  pitiful  murmurings  and  outcries." 

58.  Captain  John  Smith.  Fortunately  for  the  colony,  it 
had  one  wise, 
brave,  energetic, 
and  public-spir 
ited  man,  Cap 
tain  John  Smith. 
Butfor  him,  mat 
ters  might  have 
been  infinitely 
worse.  At  first 
his  fellow  colo 
nists  did  not  rel 
ish  his  desire  to 
manage  every 
thing,  and  threw  him  into  prison;  but  after  a  time  they  set 
him  free,  and  for  two  years  he  was  their  real  leader.  Smith 
declared  that  "  he  that  will  not  work  shall  not  eat,"  and 
obliged  all  the  settlers  to  take  a  hand  in  doing  things,  whether 
they  liked  it  or  not.  He  superintended  the  improvement  of 


Painting  by  F.  C.  Yolm  owned  by  the  Continental  Fire  Insurance  Co.,  N.  Y, 

CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH  SAVED  BY  POCAHONTAS 


58  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

the  fort  and  the  building  of  several  good  log  houses,  drilled 
the  little  garrison,  explored  the  neighboring  country  and 
made  maps  of  it,  often  wrote  to  the  Company  in  London  for 
aid,  and  traded  with  the  Indians  for  food. 

On  one  of  these  trading  expeditions  the  neighboring  Indian 
chief,  Powhatan,  made  him  a  prisoner.  Smith  afterward 
reported  that  he  was  snatched  from  death  only  through  the 
kindness  of  that  chief's  daughter,  Pocahontas.1  It  was 
Smith  alone  who,  through  his  energy  and  ability,  saved  the 
people  from  the  fate  that  overtook  the  previous  colony  at 
Roanoke. 

59.  The  starving  time.  The  London  Company  grumbled 
at  Smith,  because  he  did  not  send  home  gold  to  them.2  He 
replied  that  there  was  no  gold  to  be  had,  but  that  farming 
and  fur  trading  would  make  the  colonists  rich  if  they  wrould 
only  work.  Further,  he  told  them  that  they  ought  no  longer 
to  send  "  gentlemen  "  and  other  useless  folk  to  America, 
but  men  who  could  use  farmers'  and  laborers'  tools  —  a  bit 
of  good  advice  which  the  Company  was  slow  to  follow. 

Having  been  injured  in  an  accident,  Captain  Smith  was 
obliged  to  return  to  England  in  the  autumn  of  1609.  Then 
came  what  is  called  in  history  "  the  starving  time."  Tho 
people  had  been  too  lazy  to  build  enough  houses  to  live  in, 
there  were  sickness,  famine,  and  angry  disputes,  and  finally 
utter  despair.  Of  the  five  hundred  people  left  by  Smith, 
only  sixty  were  alive  the  following  spring.  Just  as  the  miser 
able  survivors  had  concluded  to  abandon  Jamestown,  three 
vessels  commanded  by  the  newly  appointed  Governor,  Lord 

1  Smith  declared  that  he  was  sentenced  to  death  by  Powhatan.    While  he 
was  lying  on  the  ground  with  his  head  on  a  stone,  and  a  warrior  preparing  to 
kill  him  with  a  war  club,  the  young  Pocahontas  rushed  up  and,  clasping  him  in 
her  arms,  demanded  that  his  life  be  spared.   Powhatan  granted  the  wish  of  his 
daughter,  who  was  ever  after  a  good  friend  of  the  Jamestown  people,  warning 
them  whenever  the  Indians  were  planning  to  attack  the  town.   She  married  aiv 
English  gentleman  named  John  Rolfe,  who  had  settled  in  Virginia.  Later,  Poca^ 
hontas  visited  England,  where  the  King  and  Queen  treated  her  as  though  she 
were  a  princess;  and  she  died  in  that  country.    Many  prominent  people  in  Vir 
ginia  are  to  this  day  proud  to  be  her  descendants. 

2  Some  of  the  settlers  found  a  lot  of  glittering  earth,  which  they  thought  to 
be  gold.   Although  Smith  tried  to  dissuade  them,  they  sent  a  shipload  home  to 
England,  where  it  was  found  to  be  the  worthless  stuff  known  as  iron  pyiites. 


THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  59 

Delaware,  arrived  with  more  immigrants,  chiefly  mechanics 
and  soldiers,  and  fresh  supplies.  The  colonists  decided  to 
remain,  and  Virginia  was  saved. 

60.  Individual  ownership.    Lord  Delaware  remained  at 
Jamestown  for  a  year,  but  was  unable  to  restore  order.   He 
was  succeeded  by  Sir  Thomas  Dale,  a  stern  and  hardy  sol 
dier,  who  severely  punished  all  wrongdoers.   If  a  man  even 
grumbled  or  failed  to  go  to  church,  he  was  liable  to  have 
Dale's  constables  after  him.    This  was  harsh  government, 
but  it  succeeded  with  the  kind  of  people  then  in  the  colony. 
He  gave  several  acres  of  land   to  each  settler  to  cultivate 
for  himself.   Afterward,  the  London  Company  gave  them 
fifty  acres  apiece.1  This  system  of  private  ownership  proved 
to  be  much  better  than  the  old  community  plan,  for  now 
each  must  starve  or  prosper  according  to  his  industry  or 
ability  in  working  his  own  piece  of  land.   After  this  the 
colonists  became  content,  idleness  ceased,  and  crime  dimin 
ished,  and  a  better  class  of  immigrants  were  encouraged  to 
come  over  from  England. 

61.  Tobacco  raising.    The  habit  of  using  tobacco,  which 
Raleigh  had  introduced  into  England,  had  become  very 
popular.    Not  until  they  had  been  in  America  five  years, 
however,  did  the  Virginians  seek  to  cultivate  it  themselves. 
There  at  once  sprung  up  so  great  a  demand  for  the  crop 
in  England  that  within  a  few  years  the  settlers  were  rais 
ing  scarcely  anything  else ;  even  the  streets  of  Jamestown 
were  for  a  time  largely  given  up  to  this  purpose.   From  that 
time  on,  through  the  whole  colonial  period,  tobacco  was  Vir 
ginia's  chief  crop.    Indeed,  certificates  that  were  good  for 
certain  amounts  of  tobacco  were   used  like  money,  and 
wages  were  paid  in  them  —  even  the  salaries  of  ministers  and 
the  fees  of  lawyers  and  doctors.    Nearly  everything  that 
was   sold    was  reckoned  in  so   many  pounds  of  tobacco. 

1  For  the  equivalent  of  about  five  hundred  dollars  in  our  money,  a  settler 
might  buy  a  hundred  acres;  and  a  few  men  were  rewarded  for  great  services  to 
the  colony  with  grants  not  exceeding  two  thousand  acres  each.  Every  owner 
was  obliged  to  contribute  two  and  a  half  barrels  of  teorn  to  the  town  granary, 
which  was  a  sort  of  tax  to  meet  the  expenses  of  government. 


60  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

There  were  three  important  results  of  this  new  industry  in 
Virginia:  — 

(a)  The  colony  grew  rapidly  in  population,  for  large  num 
bers  of  well-to-do  people  and  industrious  working  folk  came 
over  from  England  to  become  tobacco  planters. 

(b)  Large  plantations  were  formed.    The  Virginians  soon 
learned  that  raising  tobacco  over  and  over  again  on  the  same 
land  is  injurious  to  the  soil ;  and  the  planters  had  either  to 
get  new  farms  from  time  to  time  or  to  buy  such  large  tracts 
that  they  could  let  some  of  it  wear  out  and  yet  have  fresh 
lands  left.  These  great  plantations  stretched  along  the  broad 
and  winding  rivers  of  Virginia,  the  houses  of  the  owners 
often  being  situated  many  miles  apart  from  one  another. 
To  the  private  wharves  of  these  riverside  plantations  came 
the  small  ocean-going  vessels  of  that  day,  bringing  to  the 
planter  manufactured  goods  and  other  supplies  from  Eng 
land,  wrhich  were  exchanged  for  cargoes  of  tobacco. 

(c)  Slavery  was  established. 

62.  Slavery.  Seven  years  after  the  tobacco  crop  was  in 
troduced,  negro  slaves  were  brought  over  to  Virginia  from 
Africa;  they  were  the  first  seen  in  America.1  The  greater 
part  of  the  hard  work  on  Virginia  farms  had  thus  far  been 
done  by  "  indentured  white  servants,"  who  wrere  really 
slaves.  Most  of  these  unfortunate  people  were  English 
criminals,  who  had  been  sentenced  to  hard  labor  in  America 
for  a  certain  number  of  years;  many  others  were  gypsies, 
vagabonds  of  every  sort,  or  poor  orphan  children,  all  of 
whom  had  been  captured  in  English  towns  by  "  press  gangs  " 
and  carried  off  to  labor  for  the  tobacco-raising  planters 
in  "  Earth's  only  Paradise,"  as  a  poet  of  the  day  called 
America.  There  was,  however,  another  class  of  indentured 
servants  —  worthy  people  who  had  sold  themselves  into  this 
sort  of  slavery  for  several  years,  in  order  to  pay  for  their 
passage  to  America,  or  for  debts  incurred  in  the  old  country. 

But  many  planters  thought  that  better  service  in  the  to- 

1  Says  an  old  Virginia  chronicle:  "About  the  last  of  August  [1619],  there  came 
in  a  Dutch  man  of  warre  that  sold  us  twenty  negars." 


THE   COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  61 

bacco  fields  might  be  had  from  black  slaves,  who  were  accus 
tomed  to  work  in  a  hot  climate.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  in  those  days  not  many  white  people  saw  any  wrong  in 
making  slaves  out  of  the  heathen  blacks;  indeed,  most  Eu 
ropean  nations  had  had  such  slaves  for  centuries.  Gradually 
the  business  of  importing  negroes  to  Virginia  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  fewer  and  fewer  indentured  white  serv 
ants  were  needed. 

63.  A  representative  assembly.  During  the  first  twelve 
years  the  governor  and  council  of  Virginia  were  appointed 


JAMESTOWN   IN   1622 
From  an  early  Dutch  account  of  Virginia 

by  the  Company,  and  these  officers  had  everything  pretty 
much  their  own  way.  But  the  colonists  had  long  been  accus 
tomed  in  the  motherland  to  local  government  by  men  of 
their  own  choosing.  They  thought  that  they  ought  to  have 
this  same  privilege  in  America  --  the  liberty  which  their 
forefathers  in  England  had  won  by  many  a  hard-fought 
battle.  In  1619  the  Company  yielded  to  their  wishes, 
declaring  that  after  this  the  Virginians  should  have  a  local 
parliament  of  their  own,  "  that  they  might  have  a  hand  in 
the  governing  of  themselves."  l 

Like  the  English  Parliament  and  our  own  Congress  and 
State  legislatures,  it  was  to  consist  of  two  chambers,  or 

1  Spanish  and  French  colonists  were  never  given  any  such  self-governing 
privileges. 


62 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 


THE  OLD  CHURCH  AT  JAMES 
Kestored  to  its  original  appearance 


houses  —  that  is,  two  separate  groups  of  representatives. 
The  Council  was  to  be  the  upper  chamber  and  represent  the 
king,  while  the  people  were  to  have  as  their  own  represent 
atives  a  House  of  Burgesses,  to  serve  as  the  lower  chamber.1 
The  new  Parliament  met  on  July  30,  1619,  in  the  choir  of  the 
little  church  at  Jamestown,  and  was  the  first  lawmaking 

assembly  in  America.  It 
served  as  an  example  to 
legislatures  in  other  English 
colonies,  as  well  as  a  splen 
did  training-school  for  the 
statesmen  and  soldiers  of 
Virginia  through  colonial, 
Revolutionary,  and  state 
hood  days.  Among  the 
many  patriots  famous  in 
our  history  who  have  had 
seats  in  this  great  assem 
bly  are  Patrick  Henry  and 
Presidents  Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe. 

The  formation  of  this  House  of  Burgesses  infused  a  new 
spirit  into  the  liberty-loving  Virginians  and  now  the  colony 
grew  rapidly.  Enticed  both  by  the  representative  form  of 
government  and  by  the  fact  that  every  one  might  buy  land 
of  his  own,  at  a  low  price,  men  came  over  from  England  by 
the  hundreds,  so  that  by  1622  there  were  fully  four  thousand 
people  in  the  settlement. 

64.  Importation  of  wives.  Only  a  few  women  had  thus 
far  emigrated  to  the  colony.  But  the  London  Company  were 
desirous  "  for  the  making  of  the  men  to  feel  at  home  in  Vir 
ginia";  so  they  sent  over,  in  the  spring  of  1619,  ninety 
"  young  and  well  recommended  maids  to  become  wives." 
The  bachelors  of  the  colony  met  the  vessel  at  the  wharf, 
and,  after  each  man  had  made  his  choice,  he  asked  the 

1  Thecolony  was  divided  into  eleven  boroughs  (an  old  English  name  for  towns) 
and  each  borough  sent  two  representatives  to  the  lower  chamber.  An  inhabitant, 
or  representative,  of  a  borough  is  called  a  burgess;  this  was  why  the  chamber 
was  named  House  of  Burgesses. 


THE   COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  63 

consent  of  the  maid ;  if  she  were  willing  to  take  him  he  paid 
to  the  ship's  officers  the  cost  of  her  passage.1  A  minister  was 
then  found  to  unite  them,  and  housekeeping  at  once  began. 
The  girls  found  such  good  husbands  that  a  few  months  later 
other  maids  came  over  from  England,  and  during  several 
years  there  were  regular  importations  of  wives. 

65.  Virginia  becomes  a  royal  colony.  Because  of  bad  treat 
ment  the  Indians  had  come  to  dislike  the  Virginians,  so  in 
1622  they  rose  against  them  and  killed  three  hundred.  King 
James  was  not  fond  of  granting  much  liberty  to  his  subjects 
and  was  glad  to  make  this  an  excuse  to  revoke  the  charter 
of  the  London  Company.     He    thereupon  took    Virginia 
under  his  own  charge,  and  it  was  henceforth  known  as  a 
"  royal  colony."  2  The  House  of  Burgesses  remained,  how 
ever  ;  and  slowly  but  surely  its  members,  who  nearly  always 
were  the  best  men  to  be  found  in  Virginia,  managed  to  win 
still  further  liberties  for  the  people. 

66.  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads.  A  few  years  after  Vir 
ginia  became  a  royal  colony,  there  broke  out  in  England 
a  long  and  fierce  civil  war  between  King  Charles  I,  who 
wished  to  restrict  the  liberties  of  the  English  people,  and 
his  Parliament,  who  stoutly  contended  for  their  rights.    The 
well-to-do  classes,  called  "  Cavaliers,"  fought  for  the  King; 
the  common  people,  led  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  were  known  as 
"  Roundheads,"  and  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament.3 
King  Charles  I  was  beheaded  by  Parliament  (1649) ;  and  for 
eleven  years  England  was  governed   as   a  republic,  called 
the  Commonwealth.    The  monarchy  wras  restored  in  1660 

1  The  price  was  a  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  the  highest  grade  of  tobacco, 
worth  about  five  hundred  dollars  in  our  present  currency. 

2  A  "  royal "  colony  was  under  the  direct  control  of  the  King.  A  "proprietary  " 
colony  was  ruled  directly  by  the  proprietors;  a  "charter"  colony  had  only  such 
rights  as  the  King's  charter  gave  to  it.    Up  to  this  time,  Virginia  had  beer,  a 
" charter"  colony. 

3  The  Cavaliers  (meaning  "horsemen")  were  so  named,  because,  being  rich, 
they  rode  fine  horses;  they  also  wore  expensive  clothing,  and  their  hair  was  long 
and  in  curls.  Most  of  the  Commonwealth  (or  Parliament)  people  had  their  hair 
cropped  short.   The  term  "Round-heads"  is  said  to  have  come  from  a  custom 
among  poor  people,  in  those  days,  of  placing  a  bowl  over  the  head  and  cutting 
off  the  hair  close  up  to  the  edge  of  the  vessel;  this  left  the  remaining  hair  bushy, 
and  made  the  head  seem  quite  round. 


64  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

and  Parliament  placed  King  Charles  II,  son  of  Charles  I, 
upon  the  throne. 

This  fierce  political  quarrel  in  England  extended,  of  course, 
to  her  colonies.  The  most  influential  of  the  Virginians 
favored  the  Cavaliers.  The  Roundheads  were  unpopular; 
and  when  the  tyrannical  Sir  William  Berkeley  became  gov 
ernor  (1642),  he  ordered  them  to  leave  for  either  Maryland 
or  New  England,  where  they  were  gladly  welcomed.  Under 
the  Commonwealth,  Berkeley  was  removed  from  office, 
but  many  Cavaliers  emigrated  from  England  to  Virginia, 
where  they  were  cordially  received.1  Thus  between  1650 
and  1670  the  population  of  the  colony  grew  from  fifteen 
thousand  to  forty  thousand. 

67.  Bacon's  Rebellion.  When  Charles  II  became  king, 
he  reappointed  Governor  Berkeley,  and  then  fresh  troubles 
began.  The  colonists  grew  very  angry  over  the  many  at 
tempts  of  the  King  and  the  Governor  to  interfere  with  their 
liberties  as  Englishmen,  and  they  were  quite  ready  for  an 
outbreak  when  they  could  find  any  excuse  for  it. 

The  occasion  soon  arrived.  The  savages  had  commenced 
to  massacre  the  settlers,  who  demanded  that  the  Governor 
send  troops  against  the  tribesmen.  This  Berkeley  would  not 
do,  for  he  was  privately  making  a  great  deal  of  money  by 
trading  with  the  Indians  for  furs.  Nathaniel  Bacon,  an 
honest  and  courageous  young  member  of  the  House  of  Bur 
gesses,  and  but  recently  arrived  from  England,  was  the 
leader  of  those  who  objected  to  the  Governor's  conduct; 
and  in  1676  he  raised  an  independent  company  of  armed 
colonists  to  go  out  and  attack  the  Indians.  Berkeley  called 
him  a  "  rebel  V  for  doing  this,  and  ordered  that  he  and  his 
men  at  once  lay  down  their  weapons.  Instead  of  doing  that, 
they  first  went  out  and  defeated  the  savages  and  then 
marched  back  to  Jamestown,  where  the  Governor  and  the 
regular  militia  were  waiting  for  them  behind  breastworks. 

1  Some  of  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  history  of  Virginia  were  descendants 
of  these  Cavaliers.  General  Lee  was  of  this  class,  and  it  is  thought  that  Washing 
ton  was  also;  but  there  is  still  some  doubt  about  the  English  ancestry  of  the  latter. 


THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  65 

After  a  sharp  fight  Bacon's  party  won  the  battle,1  and 
burned  the  village.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  James 
town,  having  been  found  unhealthy,  had  little  by  little  lost 
its  population,  so  that  by  this  time 
there  were  hardly  more  than  forty 
houses  in  the  place.2 

Not  long  after  this,  Bacon  died; 
and  there  now  being  no  one  left  to 
lead  the  people  Berkeley  revenged 
himself  on  the  rebels  by  hanging 
twenty-three  of  them  and  taking 
the  property  of  the  others.  When 
the  King  heard  of  this,  he  was  very 
indignant  and  ordered  the  Gov 
ernor  to  give  up  his  office  and  come 
back  to  England,  saying:  "  That 
old  fool  has  hanged  more  men  in 
that  naked  country  than  I  have 
done  for  the  murder  of  my  father."3 
"  If  we  had  let  him  alone,"  said 
one  of  the  leading  settlers,  "he 
would  have  hanged  half  the  country."  Berkeley  died  the 
next  year  "of  a  broken  heart,"  so  his  friends  declared;  he 
thought  he  had  merely  done  his  duty  and  had  been 
wrongfully  punished.4 

1  The  rebels  compelled  some  of  the  Governor's  women  friends  to  stand  in 
front  of  them  while  the  garrison  were  firing  their  cannons.  This  piece  of  strategy 
won  the  day.    It  was  much  laughed  at,  and  Bacon  was  complimented  on  his 
"White  apron  brigade." 

2  The  town  was  rebuilt  a  few  years  later;  but  toward  the  end  of  the  seven 
teenth  century  it  was  accidentally  burned  down,  and  this  time  left  in  ruins. 
To-day  nothing  remains  at  old  Jamestown  save  a  crumbling  church  tower,  a 
few  tombstones,  the  foundations  of  three  of  the  five  churches,  and  several 
monuments  and  tablets  erected  in  1907  to  Captain  John  Smith,  Pocahontas,  the 
House  of  Burgesses,  etc.    These  relics  are  cared  for  by  the  Association  for  the 
Preservation  of  Virginia  Antiquities.  This  marshy  island  would  long  ago  have 
been  swept  away  by  the  tides  but  for  the  protecting  sea  wall  erected  by  the  Fed' 
eral  Government  in  1901-05. 

3  Charles  I,  who  had  been  beheaded. 

*  The  Governor  once  wrote:  "I  thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor 
printing  in  Virginia,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have,  these  hundred  years."  This 
was  very  short-sighted  in  him,  yet  he  subscribed  toward  founding  a  school  which 
in  later  years  became  the  College  of  William  and  Mary. 


GOVERNOR  BERKELEY 
CALLS  BACON  A  REBEL 


66  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

68.  Progress  of  the  colony.  There  were  many  dark  years 
for  the  colonists  —  as  governors  came  and  went,  each  of 
them  quarreling  with  the  House  of  Burgesses ;  as  kings  sought 
to  extort  money  from  them  or  to  curb  their  liberties;  as 
Indian  and  negro  uprisings  had  to  be  met  and  overcome; 
and  as  bad  seasons  now  and  then  brought  disaster  to  the 
tobacco  crop.   But  it  must  not  be  understood  that,  because 
these  occasional  events  brought  gloom,  the  life  of  the  colo 
nists  was  without  joy;  we  shall  see  that  there  really  was, 
all  this  while,  much  prosperity,  contentment,  and  steady 
growth. 

69.  College  of  William  and  Mary.  One  strong  evidence 
of  progress  was  the  founding  (1693)  of  the  College  of  William 
and  Mary  at  Williamsburg,  the  new  capital  of  the  colony, 
five  miles  from  Jamestown.  This,  the  second  college  in  the 
United  States,1  became  a  famous  school;  within  its  walls 
were  trained  some  of  the  Revolutionary  leaders  who,  many 
years  later,  were  to  free  the  colonies  from  the  growing  bur 
den  of  English  rule. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  discovery  was  the  foundation  of  the  King's  right  to  make  grants 
to  the  London  and  Plymouth  Companies?    Show  on  the  map  how 

these  grants  conflicted  with  what,  later,  were  the  claims  of  France. 

2.  Sketch  a  map  of  eastern  North  America,  showing  the  territory  granted 
to  the  London  and  Plymouth  Companies.    Indicate  on  the  map  the 
overlapping  territory. 

3.  Is  the  individual  ownership  of  land  to  be  preferred  to  community 
ownership  ?    In  your  neighborhood  what  things  are  ordinarily  owned 
by  individuals  ?    By  the  community  ? 

4.  Describe  the  kind  of  man  who  would  probably  have  made  a  success 
of  the  Jamestown  settlement  from  the  first,  if  the  plan  of  community 
ownership  of  land  had  not  been  in  operation. 

5.  Name  four  things  that  in  later  years  largely  contributed  to  the  prosper 
ity  of  the  Virginia  colony. 

6.  Relate  the  services  of  John  Smith  to  Virginia.   What  is  meant  by  his 
being  a  man  of  "  public  spirit "? 

1  Harvard  College  had  been  founded  in  Massachusetts  in  1636  (p.  84).  The 
first  university  to  be  founded  in  the  New  World  was  established  at  Lima,  Peru, 
in 


THE  COLONY  OF  VIRGINIA  67 

7.  Show  why  conditions  made  slavery  profitable  in  Virginia  and  in  the 
other  Southern  colonies. 

8.  What  events  happened  in  England  that  induced  a  worthy  class  of 
people  to  locate  in  Virginia? 

9.  Who  was  the  nearer  right  in  Bacon's  Rebellion,  Berkeley  or  Bacon? 
Why? 

10.  Relate  how  the  people  of  Virginia  secured  and  maintained  in  a  measure 
self-government. 

11.  Why  did  the  Virginians  not  live  in  towns? 

12.  Important  dates:  — 

1607  —  Founding  of  Jamestown. 
1619  —  Beginning  of  representative  government. 
First  importation  of  slaves. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  "As  our  worshipful  governor,  Captain  John  Smith,  whom  the  ne'er- 
do-wells  of  our  company  affect  to  despise  as  willing  to  work  with  his 
hands  and  therefore  no  true  gentleman,  was  proceeding  forth  to  deal 
with  the  painted  savages  for  corn,  he  came  upon  a  group  of  our  fine 
gentlemen  who  —  "   Complete  this  passage  from  an  imaginary  diary. 
This  may  be  dramatized. 

2.  Imagine  yourself  an  industrious  Jamestown  settler.   Write  a  letter  to 
a  brother  in  England  in  which  you  tell  of  the  discouragements  of  the 
community  plan  of  ownership. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  live  in  Jamestown  and  sympathize  with  Bacon  in 
his  rebellion.   Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  London,  explaining  your 
reasons  for  this  sympathy. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Merchants  organize  colonies  for  profit. 

2.  Character  of  first  settlers. 

3.  The  place  chosen  for  settlement. 

4.  John  Smith. 

5.  Early  difficulties  and  discouragements^ 

6.  Dale's  reforms. 

7.  Growth  of  tobacco. 

8.  Beginning  of  slavery. 

9.  Beginning  of  self-government. 

10.  Influence  of  events  in  England  upon  the  colony. 

11.  Bacon  and  Berkeley. 

12.  Beginnings  of  education. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OTHER  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

70.  Maryland.  George  Calvert,  the  first  Lord  Baltimore, 
a  Roman  Catholic  noted  for  his  wisdom,  his  liberal  views,  and 
his  interest  in  colonization,  obtained  from  King  Charles  I 
the  promise  of  the  country  lying  north  of  the  Potomac 
River  and  south  of  the  Plymouth  Company's  boundary. 
This  territory  he  called  Maryland,  in  honor  of  the  Queen. 
But  Baltimore  died  before  the  signing  of  the  charter;  and 
his  son,  Cecil  Calvert,  the  second  Lord  Baltimore,  received 
the  grant.  This  gave  him  almost  royal  power  in  Maryland 
—  he  could  declare  war,  make  peace,  appoint  all  officers, 
pardon  criminals,  and  do  many  other  things  pretty  much  as 
he  pleased.  But  in  making  laws  and  levying  taxes,  he  must 
consult  the  assembly,  whose  acts  did  not  have  to  be  confirmed 
by  the  King.  In  short,  it  was  left  for  the  proprietor  and  his 
colonists  to  decide  among  themselves  how  Maryland  should 
be  governed. 

In  1633  Lord  Baltimore  sent  out  his  brother,  Leonard 
Calvert,  in  charge  of  two  hundred  colonists,  and  the  next 
spring  they  founded  St.  Mary's.1  An  Indian  chief  lived  on 
the  site,  and  allowed  his  wigwam  to  be  used  as  a  chapel. 
This  was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  church  established  by 
the  English  in  America. 2 

At  that  time  Catholics  were  being  very  harshly  treated 
in  England.3  The  Baltimore  family  had  founded  this  colony 

1  Annapolis  was  founded  in  1683,  and  Baltimore  in  1729. 

2  The  settlers  of  New  France  were  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics,  and  had  many 
churches  and  priests. 

3  Any  one  refusing  to  attend  the  services  of  the  Church  of  England  was  liable 
to  be  fined  each  month  a  sum  equal  to  $700  or  $800  in  our  money.  In  many  parts 
of  England  Catholics  were  frequently  thrown  into  foul  prisons,  and  their  prop 
erty  taken  from  them;  anybody  might  insult  them  without  fear  of  punishment. 
For  many  years  their  life  was  full  of  misery. 


OTHER  SOUTHERN   COLONIES 


69 


in  order  that  those  who  had  the  same  religious  beliefs  as 
themselves  might  thereafter  live  in  peace  and  comfort.  Be 
ing  generous-hearted  men,  they  wished  others  also  to  have 
justice.  So,  in  1649,  they  secured  the  passage  by  the  assem 
bly  of  a  Toleration  Act,  which  granted  freedom  of  worship 
to  all  Christians  throughout  the  province.  Thus  Maryland 
set  an  example  of  liberty  of  conscience  that  some  of  the 


Painting  by  Mayer,  in  the  State  Capitol,  Annapolis 
THE   PLANTING   OF   THE   COLONY   OF   MARYLAND 

other  English  colonies  in  America  would  have  done  well  to 
follow. 

A  province  so  wisely  planned  deserved  to  prosper,  and  it 
did.  The  settlers  sent  over  were  used  to  working  with  their 
hands;  they  felled  forests,  raised  crops,  wisely  made  friends 
with  the  Indians,  and  did  not  waste  their  time  in  seeking 
for  gold  mines.  To  be  sure,  there  were  some  disputes  be 
tween  the  proprietor  and  the  colonial  assembly,  because 
the  former  wanted  to  make  the  people  pay  some  of  the 
costs  of  government;  whereas  the  latter,  as  usual  with  Eng 
lishmen,  insisted  on  their  right  to  decide  what  taxes  should 
be  levied.  However,  both  sides  kept  in  good  temper;  and 


70  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

so  long  as  the  Baltimores  were  in  power,  the  political  affairs 
of  the  colony  ran  quite  smoothly.  But  in  1654,  during  the 
rule  of  the  Commonwealth  in  England,  the  proprietors 
were  driven  out,  the  Toleration  Act  was  repealed,  and  Ro 
man  Catholic  worship  forbidden.  After  four  years,  how 
ever,  Parliament  restored  Lord  Baltimore  to  his  rights,  and 
freedom  of  worship  was  again  permitted. 

There  followed  a  quiet,  prosperous  term  of  thirty  years. 
But  a  revolution  then  arose  in  England  (1688-89),  by  which 
William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne.  This  brought  about 
a  serious  change  in  Maryland.  The  power  of  the  Baltimore 
family  again  ceased  for  a  time.  Catholics  were  persecuted 
the  same  as  in  England,  and  for  several  years  there  was 
much  disorder  in  the  once  peaceful  province.  In  1715  con 
trol  was  restored  to  the  Baltimores,  and  Maryland  once 
more  became  prosperous. 

71.  The  Carolinas.  A  broad  belt  of  unsettled  land  lay 
between  the  English  colony  in  Virginia  and  the  Spanish 
colony  in  Florida.  It  was  claimed  by  England  and  known 
as  Carolina,  in  honor  of  King  Charles  I.1  Many  early  ad 
venturers  from  Virginia  wandered  into  the  unoccupied  ter 
ritory,  traded  with  the  Indians,  and  bought  lands  from  them 
But  nothing  of  lasting  importance  happened  here  until 
1663,  when  King  Charles  II,  in  a  fit  of  generosity,  gave  it 
as  a  present  to  eight  of  his  friends. 

Religious  liberty  was  allowed  by  the  proprietors.  This 
attracted  to  Carolina  a  large  number  of  French  Protestants, 
called  Huguenots,  who  were  being  persecuted  at  home 
most  cruelly.  They  settled  chiefly  in  the  southern  part, 
and  being  intelligent,  well  educated,  and  industrious,  made 
admirable  colonists,  from  whom  many  of  the  best  families 
of  South  Carolina  to-day  trace  their  descent.2 

1  The  name  comes  from  Carohis,  the  Latin  form  of  Charles.    From  1562  to 
1568  French  colonies  were  attempted  in  Florida;  and  the  entire  region,  including 
the  country  to  the  north,  was  named  Carolina  in  honor  of  their  boy-king, 
Charles  IX.   When  the  English  settlements  were  planted,  the  old  French  name 
was  retained  in  honor  of  Charles  I  of  England. 

2  In  1670-71,  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  was  founded  by  William  Sayle, 
Many  Huguenots  settled  there. 


OTHER  SOUTHERN   COLONIES 


In  the  northern  part  of  the  province,  the  settlers  were 
mostly  poor,  hard-working  people  who  had  come  to  America 
from  different  countries  of  Europe,  in  the  hope  that  here 
they  would  not  be  lorded  over  by  aristocrats;  and  they 
made  much  trouble  for  i,  .  .-  v  .  y|  / 

rr  !      PENNSYLVANI^^^^l   / 

the  officers  set  over 
them.  In  the  southern 
part,  however,  were 
many  wealthy  planters 
of  rice  and  indigo,1  who 
were  aristocratic  in 
their  manner  of  living, 
had  negro  slaves  to 
serve  them,  and  were 
friendly  to  the  proprie 
tors.  So  many  dissen 
sions  broke  out  between 
the  two  sections  that 
when  the  disappointed 
proprietors  sold  their 
rights  to  King  George 
II,  he  divided  the  pro 
vince  into  North  Caro 
lina  and  South  Caro 
lina,  with  much  the 
same  bounds  that  they 
have  in  our  day. 

72.  Georgia.  England  now  claimed  the  Atlantic  Coast 
as  far  south  as  St.  John's  River ;  but  as  the  southern  bound 
ary  of  South  Carolina  was  virtually  the  Savannah  River, 
there  lay  between  these  two  streams  a  wide  unoccupied 
strip.  This,  King  George  ordered  to  be  called  Georgia,  after 
himself. 

There  lived  in  England  at  this  time  a  gallant  soldier,  Gen- 

1  The  growing  of  rice  was  begun  quite  early  in  the  history  of  the  colony,  near 
Charleston.  South  Carolina  continues  to  be  the  center  of  this  important  in 
dustry  in  the  United  States. 


THE  SOUTHERN    COLONIES 


72  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

eral  James  Oglethorpe.  He  was  a  kind-hearted  man,  who  dis 
liked  to  see  Englishmen  imprisoned  for  debt  —  as  they  then 
were,  even  for  small  debts.  These  poor  debtors  were  some 
times  kept  so  long  in  damp  and  unhealthy  jails  that  they 
contracted  diseases  and  even  died  in  prison,  while  their 
families  starved.  Oglethorpe  obtained  from  the  King  per 
mission  to  plant  a  colony  of  debtors  in  Georgia.  By  making 
such  a  settlement,  he  hoped  to  accomplish  two  things:  - 

(a)  To  provide  these  unfortunate  people  with  a  home, 
where  they  might  make  a  good  living  by  farming,  raising 
silk,  and  trading  with  the  Indians  for  furs. 

(b)  To  provide  a  barrier  between  Carolina  and  the  Span 
ish  colony  of  Florida.  The  Spaniards  were  making  free  with 
Carolina,  as  though  they  owned  the  country,  and  by  trad 
ing  with  the  Indians  interfered  with  the  profits  of  English 
traders. 

At  Oglethorpe's  request,  the  King  ordered  that  there 
should  be  neither  slavery  nor  liquor  trade  in  Georgia,  that 
no  one  should  own  over  five  hundred  acres  of  land,  that  for 
twenty-one  years  the  settlers  should  have  no  voice  in  mak 
ing  the  laws,  and  that  all  except  Roman  Catholics  should 
enjoy  religious  freedom. 

In  1733  Oglethorpe  himself  landed  with  thirty-five  fami 
lies,  and  founded  Savannah.  At  first  his  colony  grew  slowly, 
because  it  contained  so  many  idle  and  worthless  people 
who  had  not  been  able  to  manage  their  own  affairs  in  Eng 
land  ;  but  little  by  little  there  arrived  thrifty  Germans  and 
Scotch  Highlanders,  and  then  affairs  went  better. 

As  the  Spaniards  continued  to  invade  the  country  Ogle 
thorpe  built  several  forts  along  the  seacoast  to  frighten  them 
off.  When  a  war  broke  out  between  Spain  and  England,  in 
1739,  he  set  forth  with  eight  hundred  men  and  boldly  laid 
siege  to  the  strong  fort  of  St.  Augustine.  Sickness  in  his 
camp  soon  obliged  him  to  retire  without  success.  Two  years 
later  the  enemy  retaliated  by  attacking  him.  This  time, 
however,  the  English  beat  off  the  invaders,  and  the  Span 
iards  never  returned  to  bother  their  northern  neighbors. 


OTHER  SOUTHERN   COLONIES  73 

The  laws  of  the  colony  were  not  popular  with  the  settlers. 
The  well-to-do  wanted  a  chance  to  have  large  farms  such 
as  other  Southern  colonists  enjoyed,  and  to  use  negro  slaves; 
and  merchants  and  sailors  wished  to  engage  in  the  profit 
able  rum  traffic  with  the  West  Indies.  Oglethorpe  returned 
to  England  in  1743,  much  chagrined  at  the  disaffection  of 
his  people.  Six  years  later  new  laws  were  passed,  permit 
ting  slavery  and  the  liquor  traffic,  and  giving  the  colonists 
the  right  to  make  their  own  laws.  In  1752  the  founder  and 
his  associates  surrendered  their  charter  to  the  King,  who 
thenceforth  ruled  Georgia  as  a  "  royal  "  province.  The  peo 
ple  were  pleased  at  all  these  changes  and  took  fresh  interest 
in  the  colony,  which  now  began  to  prosper. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Locate  on  the  map  the  territory  granted  by  the  King  to  Lord  Balti 
more. 

2.  Contrast  ^the  character  of  the  early  colonists  of  Maryland  with  those 
of  Virginia. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  religious  freedom  or  toleration?     Read  the  first 
part  of  Article  I  of  the  Amendments  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.    (Appendix,  page  xxi.) 

4.  Compare  the  early  settlers  of  North  Carolina  and  of  South  Carolina. 

5.  Why  did  not  the  French  Huguenots  settle  in  the  territory  discovered 
and  explored  by  the  French? 

6.  What^motives  were  in  the  mind  of  Oglethorpe  in  the  settlement  of 
Georgia? 

7.  From  the  history  of  the  Georgia  colony  show  how  poor  people  fare 
better  now  than  two  hundred  years  ago. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  six  Southern  places  of  importance  named  in  honor  of 
kings  and  queens. 

9.  Name   the  various   reasons  why  English   people   came  to  America, 
as  told  in  this  chapter. 

10.  Maryland,  Carolina,  and  Georgia  were  the  refuge  of  the  weak,  op 
pressed,  and  persecuted.    Which  class  of  these  came  to  Maryland?  to 
Georgia?  to  Carolina? 

11.  On  a  map  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  south  of  the  Delaware  River,  locate  the 
five  original  colonies,  the  Spanish  territory,  and  four  important  settle 
ments. 


74  THE   PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Describe  the  trip  up  Chesapeake  Bay  by  the  founders  of  Maryland. 
They  observe  the  woods,  the  red  men,  the  great  rivers.    The  Indians 
bring  them  game  and  fish.    One  of  the  white  men  has  a  vision  of  the 
commercial  future  of  this  inlet  of  the  sea. 

2.  An  Indian  who  is  accustomed  to  trading  in  Jamestown  has  visited 
St.  Mary's.   He  makes  a  report  to  his  chief  in  which  he  shows  the  dif 
ferences  he  has  observed  in  the  colonies. 

3.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  give  a  different  imaginary  incident  in  the 
life  of  a  Huguenot  settler  of  South  Carolina:  These  incidents  may  have 
to  do  with  the  selection  of  a  location  for  the  building  of  the  home,  the 
clearing  of  the  soil,  the  first  planting,  the  first  harvest,  a  strange  ad 
venture  with  wild  beasts,  a  surprising  adventure  with  the  Indians,  a 
letter  from  France. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Maryland,  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed. 

2.  Character  of  early  settlers  of  Maryland. 

3.  Two  classes  of  people  in  Carolina. 

4.  Georgia,  a  refuge  for  poor  people. 

5.  Relation  of  settlers  of  Georgia  to  the  Spanisho 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   NEW   ENGLAND    COLONIES 

73.  John  Smith  names  New  England.  Several  years  after 
the  founding  of  Jamestown,  Captain  John  Smith  went  from 
England  on  a  fishing  and  fur-trading  voyage  to  the  coast 
known  in  that  day  as  "  North  Virginia,"  and  owned  by  the 
Plymouth  Company.     He  found  there  only  Indians,  but 
named  the  country  "  New  England,"  which  it  has  ever 
since  been  called;  and  he  gave  to  many  of  its  harbors  the 
names  of  English  seaport  towns.  This  region  soon  attracted 
settlers  who  left  their  homes  in  England  because  they  there 
suffered  persecution  for  their  religious  beliefs. 

74.  Struggle  for  religious  liberty.  In  our  day  most  civil 
ized  nations  allow  their  citizens  entire  freedom  of  thought 
and  worship;  but  three  centuries  ago,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  very  few  men  of  the  governing  class  were  tolerant  in 
these  matters.    The  people  were  compelled  to  worship  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  their  rulers.    Large  numbers 
of  the  people  of  England  bitterly  resented  this  treatment, 
saying  that  theirs  was  a  free  country,  where  men  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  worship  as  they  pleased. 

75.  Puritans  and  Separatists.  Roman  Catholics  were  not 
the  only  people  to  be  treated  in  this  manner.    There  were 
also   many   Protestants,   called   "  Dissenters  "  or  "  Non 
conformists/'  whose  opinions  differed  from  those  of  the 
Church  of  England  —  which  was  the  established,  or  state, 
religion — and    who    consequently    suffered    persecution. 
They  were  for  the  most  part  divided  into  two  classes:  — 

(a)  The  "  Puritans."  These  people  wanted  to  remain  in 
the  Church  of  England,  but  they  sought  to  purify  it  of  cer 
tain  ceremonies  which  they  said  were  too  much  like  those  of 
the  Roman  Church,  from  which  the  Church  of  England  had 
long  been  separated. 


76 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


(b)  The  "  Separatists,"  who  were  not  so  numerous  as  the 
"  Puritans,"  thought  it  impossible  to  bring  about  reforms 
in  the  church;  they  therefore  wanted  to  separate  from  it 
and  form  independent  congregations.  The  church  officials, 
however,  would  not  consent  to  this;  indeed,  it  was  contrary 
to  the  law  of  the  land. 

76.  The  Pilgrims.  Several  Separatists  lived  in  and  about 
the  quaint  little  English  village  of  Scrooby,1  and  secretly 

formed  themselves  into 

an  independent  congre 
gation.  For  the  most 
part,  they  were  of  the 
working  class  —  sturdy 
men,  poor  of  purse,  but 
of  high  character,  who 
lived  simply  and  were 
deeply  religious  in  their 
thought.  A  few,  how 
ever,  were  educated  and 
fairly  well-to-do  people. 
All  of  them  were  respec- 

HOMES   OF  THE    PILGRIMS   AND    THEIR      ,    ,  ,  *V> 

ROUTE  TO  AMERICA  table>     peaceable    citi 

zens;    but    they    were 

breaking  the  law  in  thus  meeting  secretly  and  worshiping 
God  after  their  own  manner.  King  James  I  therefore  treated 
them  as  rebels,  casting  some  into  prison  and  persecuting 
all  in  one  way  or  another.  The  King  had  said,  "  I  will  make 
them  conform,  or  I  will  harry  them  out  of  the  land."  As 
they  did  not  intend  to  conform  to  the  church,  the  Scrooby 
Separatists  decided  to  get  out  of  the  land  before  they  were 
further  harried.  So  in  1608  they  escaped  to  Holland,  in 
which  little  country  they  would  be  granted  more  liberty  than 
in  England.  These  poor  fugitives  were  called  "  Pilgrims," 

1  Scrooby  to-day  has  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  inhabitants,  yet  it 
is  probably  as  large  as  it  was  three  hundred  years  ago.  Each  year  it  is  visited 
by  many  Americans,  who  go  to  see  the  old  home  of  several  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers.  It  lies  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  of  London  and  some 
ninety  miles  east  of  Liverpool. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  77 

because  of  their  wanderings  and  the  hardships  they  suf 
fered  for  the  sake  of  their  religion. 

77.  The  Pilgrims  in  Holland.  Holland  was  then  the  only 
nation  in  Europe  that  opened  its  doors  to  Christians  of 
every  belief.    Nevertheless,  the  Pilgrims  soon  discovered 
the  following  drawbacks  to  their  remaining  in  that  coun 
try:— 

(a)  It  seemed  likely  that  war  would  soon  break  out  again 
between  Spain  and  Holland,  and  in  that  event  the  Pilgrims 
might  be  forced  to  take  part  in  it. 

(b)  Their  children  were  becoming  Dutch  in  speech  and 
manners. 

(c)  The  Pilgrims  found  it  difficult  to  obtain  employment 
in  that  small  and  thickly  settled  country. 

Accordingly,  after  much  thought  and  prayer  they  finally 
decided  tc  move  to  America.  In  that  far-away  wilderness, 
they  said,  they  would  build  a  new  England,  where  Sepa 
ratists  might  be  free  to  worship  as  they  wished. 

78.  Sailing  of  the  Mayflower.   King  James  I  was  asked 
whether  he  would  permit  these  obstinate  people  to  dwell 
in  America.   He  did  not  actually  consent,  but  promised  that 
so  long  as  they  behaved  properly  over  there,  he  would  not 
disturb  them.1 

In  July,  1620,  the  little  sailing  ship  Speedwell  took  about 
a  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  Pilgrims  from  Holland  to  the 
English  port  of  Southampton,  where  her  sister  vessel,  the 
Mayflower,  was  waiting  for  them.2  The  people  were  now 
divided  between  the  two  ships,  which  started  from  South- 

1  Having  little  money  of  their  own,  they  were  obliged  to  borrow,  on  very 
hard  terms,  from  a  company  of  merchants  in  London.    In  return  for  the  loan 
the  settlers  promised  that  for  seven  years  they  would  devote  all  their  time,  ex 
cept  Sundays,  to  farming,  fishing,  fur  trading,  etc.,  for  the  benefit  of  this  com 
pany,  and  would  keep  all  of  their  property  in  common.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
everything  was  to  be  divided,  half  and  half,  between  the  company  and  the 
settlers,  and  after  this  every  man  must  work  for  himself.    Fortunately,  after  a 
few  years  the  settlers  found  themselves  able,  by  great  sacrifices,  to  purchase 
the  shares  of  the  company.   In  this  way  they  themselves  became  owners  of  the 
colony,  with  the  right  to  manage  their  own  affairs. 

2  Not  all  of  the  congregation  were  on  the  Speedwell,  for  some  remained  in. 
Holland  to  see  how  the  American  experiment  prospered,  before  going  to  that 
country  themselves. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 


ampton  with  their  precious  cargoes;  but  the  Speedwell 
soon  sprung  a  leak  and  put  in  at  Plymouth,  England,  where 
she  was  abandoned.  As  the  Mayflower  could  not  hold  over 
a  hundred  and  two  men,  women,  and  children,  together  with 
their  furniture  and  other  property,  the  leaders  selected  that 
number  of  the  strongest  of  their  party,  who  seemed  the 

best  suited  to  life  in  a 
new  colony,  and  they 
only  were  allowed  to  go 
to  America. 

For  reasons  not  now 
known,  the  captain  of 
the  Mayflower  pretend 
ed  that  contrary  mid 
winter  winds  would  not 
allow  him  to  sail  as  far 
south  as  the  Hudson 
River,  where  the  Pil 
grims  had  planned  to  set 
tle.  He  therefore  headed 
his  ship  for  the  country 
that  John  Smith  had 
named  New  England. 
After  a  stormy  voyage 
of  nearly  two  months  they  sighted  Cape  Cod,  whose  low- 
lying  shore  hems  in  Massachusetts  Bay  on  the  east,  and 
spent  more  than  a  month  in  exploring  the  region  for  a 
proper  spot  at  which  to  settle. 

79.  Landing  at  Plymouth.  Massachusetts  Bay  was  fringed 
with  ice,  and  the  forests  of  cedar  and  pine  were  shrouded 
with  deep  snow.  The  poor  immigrants  must  have  thought 
it  a  very  dreary  place  for  their  future  home.  No  doubt 
many  a  faint  heart  in  the  Mayflower's  company  was  by  this 
time  yearning  for  the  comforts  and  more  genial  climate  of 
Holland  or  of  their  own  motherland.  Finally,  on  Decem 
ber  22, 1620,  the  Pilgrims  went  ashore  and  settled  at  a  place 
called,  on  Smith's  map  of  New  England,  Plymouth,  which, 


THE    MAYFLOWER   IN    MID-OCEAN 

The  Mayflower  was  82  feet  long.  22  feet  wide,  and  14  feet 
deep ,  displacement,  120  tons 


THE   NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  79 

curiously  enough,  was  the  name  of  "  the  last  town  they  left 
in  their  native  country."  1 

So.  Self-government  established.  While  still  on  the 
Mayflower,  just  before  landing,  forty-one  of  the  men  of  the 
party  —  true  to  the  ever-present  English  desire  for  local 


Painting  by  H.  Carmiench 

THE  LANDING   OF   THE   PILGRIMS   AT   PLYMOUTH 


following   compact   for   the 


"  home   rule  "    -  signed    the 
regulation  of  the  colony :  — 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  amen.  We  whose  names  are  underwritten, 
the  loyal  subjects  of  our  dread  sovereign  Lord  King  James,  by 
the  grace  of  God  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland  King, 
Defender  of  the  Faith,  etc.,  having  undertaken,  for  the  glory 
of  God  and  advancement  of  the  Christian  faith  and  honor  of  our 
king  and  country,  a  voyage  to  plant  the  first  colony  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Virginia,  do  by  these  presents  solemnly  and  mutually,  in 
the  presence  of  God  and  one  of  another,  covenant  and  combine 
ourselves  together  into  a  civil  body  politic,  for  our  better  ordering 

1  They  came  ashore  in  the  ship's  rowboats.  It  is  said  that  a  small  granite 
boulder,  lying  on  the  sandy  beach,  was  used  by  them  in  landing,  as  a  stepping- 
stone.  This  is  called  Plymouth  Rock,  and  is  still  carefully  preserved  not  far 
from  the  old  landing-place. 


8o 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 


and  preservation  and  furtherance  of  the  ends  aforesaid;  and  by 
virtue  hereof  to  enact,  constitute,  and  frame  such  just  and  equal 
laws,  ordinances,  acts,  constitutions,  and  offices  from  time  to 
time,  as  shall  be  thought  most  meet  and  convenient  for  the  general 
good  of  the  Colony,  unto  which  we  promise  all  due  submission  and 
obedience.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunder  subscribed  our 
names  at  Cape  Cod,  the  I  ith  of  November,  in  the  year  of  the  reign 
of  our  sovereign  lord  King  James,  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland, 
the  eighteenth  and  of  Scotland  the  fifty-fourth.  Anno  Dom.  1620." 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  self-government  in  New  Eng 
land  --a  year  and  a  half  after  the  first  meeting  of  the 
famous  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses. 

81.  Getting  established.  The  Pilgrims  at  once  erected 
log  houses  for  their  families;  but  food  was  scarce  and  the 

winter  far  more 
severe  than  any 
they  had  ever  ex 
perienced.  About 
half  of  the  colony 
died  of  various 
illnesses  before 
spring.  Fearing 
that  they  might 
soon  have  to 
fight  the  Indians, 
Miles  Stand ish, 
a  stout-hearted 
soldier,was  chos 
en  military  com 
mander;  but  for 
tunately  for  these 
poor  Englishmen,  most  of  the  Indians  in  this  region  had 
recently  been  swept  off  by  a  terrible  pestilence,  and  the  few 

1  Once,  a  chief  named  Canonicus  sent  to  Governor  Bradford  a  curious  declara 
tion  of  war.  It  consisted  of  a  number  of  arrows  tied  together  with  the  skin  of 
a  rattlesnake.  Bradford  said  nothing,  but  filled  the  skin  with  powder  and  bul 
lets  and  returned  it  to  the  chief.  This  meant  that  he  would  willingly  reply 
to  the  war  arrows  of  Canonicus  with  the  white  men's  firearms.  The  savage 
leader  at  once  understood  this  message,  and  did  not  attack  the  waiting  pale 
faces. 


Painting  by  F.  T.  Merrill.    Courtesy,  .V.  E  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Co, 

THE  VISIT   OF  SAMOSET  1 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  8r 

remaining  were  not  strong  enough  to  attack  the  newcomers. 
After  the  colony  was  a  few  months  old,  it  was  visited  by 
an  Indian  named  Samoset,  who  had  learned  a  few  English 
words  from  sailors  visiting  this  coast.  With  outstretched 
hands  he  came  into  the  village,  crying,  "Welcome,  English 
men!  "and  later  introduced  to  the  Pilgrims  Massasoit,  the 
local  chief;  the  latter  soon  made  a  treaty  with  them,  which 
the  red  men  of  the  neighborhood  kept  faithfully  for  fifty 
years. 

In  the  spring  of  1621,  the  Mayflower  returned  to  Eng 
land.  After  the  terrible  experience  of  that  first  winter  in 
the  wilderness,  no  doubt  some  of  the  Pilgrims  were  sorely 
tempted  to  go  with  her,  forsaking  Plymouth  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  the  Jamestown  colonists  had  decided  to 
abandon  their  settlement.  But  not  a  man  or  a  woman  of 
those  who  survived  turned  back.  They  had  come  to  America 
not  for  riches,  but  with  a  high  and  earnest  purpose;  and 
no  hardship  could  discourage  them. 

82.  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony^-During  the  year  1628, 
sixty  Puritans,1  under  the  governorship  of  John  Endicott, 
a  man  of  the  gentry  class,  with  a  fine  reputation  for  purity 
of  character  and  strength  of  mind,  settled  at  Salem,2  on  the 
shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  sixteen  miles  north  of  the  site 
of  Boston,  on  a  strip  of  land  which  they  had  bought  from 
the  Plymouth  Company.  This  grant  was  sixty  miles  north 
and  south,  and  stretched  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
At  that  time  most  Englishmen  thought  the  Pacific  not  far 
westward  of  the  Hudson  River. 

Two  years  later  they  were  joined  by  John  Winthrop  and 
nearly  eight  hundred  other  colonists,  with  a  large  stock 
of  horses,  cattle,  and  goods,  filling  eleven  small  sailing 
vessels.  Winthrop  was  a  wealthy  man  of  the  sturdy  English 

1  It  has  been  explained  that  there  were  at  first  two  parties  dissenting  from  the 
Church  _of  England  —  Separatists  and  Puritans;  but  gradually  most  of  those 
who  emigrated  to  New  England  became  Separatists,  even  if  they  were  not  so 
when  they  arrived.    For  convenience,  however,  historians  call  all  of  these  people 
Puritans,  and  we  shall  hereafter  give  them  this  name. 

2  A  word  meaning  "  Peace."   The  settlers  hoped  to  here  find  peace  from  reli 
gious  persecution. 


82  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

middle  class,  and  several  of  his  companions  were  graduates 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  All  of  them  were  seeking 
religious  freedom. 

By  this  time  the  number  of  settlers  in  that  neighborhood 
had  become  too  great  to  be  accommodated  at  Salem;  so 
several  new  towns  were  at  once  started  --  Charlestown, 
Dorchester,  Watertown,  Roxbury,  Lynn,  Boston,1  and 
Cambridge,  then  called  Newtown.  The  name  Massachu 
setts  Bay  Colony  was  given  to  this  group  of  towns,  Win- 
throp  was  made  its  governor,  and  Boston  was  chosen  as 
its  capital.  The  affairs  of  the  colony  were  looked  after  by  a 
General  Court,  which  consisted  of  delegates  from  the  towns, 
and  met  once  a  year. 2  In  time  most  of  the  other  settle 
ments  in  this  vicinity  joined  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony 
and  sent  delegates  to  the  General  Court.3 

83.  Town  meetings.  The  Puritans  and  their  neighbors 
and  successors  managed  all  public  affairs  chiefly  in  town 
meetings,  in  which  every  man  who  belonged  to  the  Puritan 
congregation  had  a  right  to  participate.  Nobody  else  could 
attend  "  meeting  "  and  vote  on  public  questions.  At  these 
gatherings  laws  were  made,  the  public  business  of  the  town 
was  talked  over,  even  to  the  smallest  affair,  and  town  offi 
cers  were  told  what  to  do.  When  the  town  meeting  passed 

1  In  1625  or  1626  William  Blackstone,  "a  solitary,  bookish  recluse,  in  his 
thirty-fifth  year,"  built  a  little  cottage  on  the  west  slope  of  Beacon  Hill,  and  was 
thus  the  pioneer  settler  on  the  peninsula  of  Boston,  which  was  known  to  the 
Indians  as  Shawmut.  Here  he  was  quietly  engaged  in  "trading  with  the  savages, 
cultivating  his  garden,  and  watching  the  growth  of  some  apple  trees."  Governor 
Winthrop  had  first  chosen  the  site  of  Charlestown  as  the  residence  of  his  party. 
But  they  found  no  good  water  there;  so  Blackstone  went  over  and  informed 
them  of  "an  excellent  spring"  at  Shawmut,  and  invited  them  to  be  his  neigh 
bors.    They  accepted  at  once,  and  in  this  way  the  city  of  Boston  was  founded. 
At  first  the  English  gave  to  Shawmut  the  name  "Trimontaine,"  because  of  its 
three  hiils;  but  they  soon  shortened  this  to  "Tremont"  (a  name  surviving  in 
one  of  the  principal  streets).  After  a  little  they  selected  the  name  Boston,  from 
a  town  in  England  from  which  some  of  the  settlers  had  come. 

2  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Massachusetts  General  Court  was  quite  simi 
lar  to  the  Virginia  House  of   Burgesses.    The  magistrates    (judges)  had  also 
much  influence  and  power  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

3  When  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  got  well  started,  the  Plymouth 
Colony  ceased  to  be  of  much  importance.    It  was  not  so  well  situated  for  com 
merce  as  were  Boston  and  the  other  towns  of  that  neighborhood.    In   1691 
Plymouth  was  annexed  to  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  83 

a  law,  the  town  officers  (called  "  selectmen  ")  must  strictly 
enforce  it;  no  favors  were  shown  to  any  one,  no  matter  how 
rich  or  powerful  he  might  be.  Thus  each  town  in  New  Eng- 

I  land  was  as  perfect  a  democracy  —  that  is,  for  the  church 

(  members  themselves  —  as  ever  existed. 

When  there  came  to  be  several  towns,  it  was  found  in 
convenient  to  assemble  all  of  the  voters  at  the  capital. 
There  was  then  of  necessity  adopted  a  representative  form 


Copyright,  A.  S.  Burbank 
A  SETTLER'S   HOUSE   AND  STOCKADE 

Notice  the  vegetable  garden  within  the  stockade,  the  cornfield  in  the  rear,  and  the  fort  on 
the  crest  of  the  hill 

of  government,  for  conducting  the  business  of  the  entire 
colony;  such  was  the  General  Court,  just  mentioned.  But 
the  people  still  kept  to  the  old  town  meeting  method  of 
managing  all  local  town  affairs. 

84.  Increase  of  immigration.  Immigration  to  Massachu 
setts  Bay  now  increased  rapidly.  By  1634  there  were  nearly 
four  thousand  English  men,  women,  and  children  settled 
in  this  region. 

The  life  of  the  early  colonists  was  one  of  constant  toil; 
they  often  suffered  terribly  from  the  winter's  cold,  and  crops 
were  sometimes  so  poor  in  that  stony  soil  that  more  than 


84  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

once  they  came  near  starving.1  But  they  had  come  to  Amer 
ica  to  work  for  their  living,  and  to  be  free;  they  intended  to 
stay  here,  no  matter  how  hard  their  life  might  be.  One  of 
them  proudly  wrote  back  to  his  English  friends,  "  A  sip  of 
New  England's  air  is  better  than  a  whole  draught  of  Old 
England's  ale." 

85.  Public  instruction.  In  spite  of  their  poverty  the  peo 
ple  of  Massachusetts  Bay  would  not  allow  their  children  to 
grow  up  in  ignorance. 

In  1636  the  General  Court  voted  £400,  a  very  large  sum, 
considering  the  narrow  means  of  the  colony,  to  found  a 
college  at  Cambridge,  in  order,  as  they  said,  that  "  the  light 
of  learning  might  not  go  out,  nor  the  study  of  God's  Word 
perish."  Two  years  later  the  Reverend  John  Harvard,  who 
had  come  out  from  England  in  1637,  died,  leaving  to  the 
college  his  library  and  a  legacy  of  £800.  Thereafter  the  in 
stitution  bore  his  name,  Harvard  College. 

In  1647  the  General  Court  decreed  that  in  every  township 
having  fifty  families  or  more,  there  must  be  maintained  by 
public  taxes  a  school  for  instruction  in  reading  and  writing; 
every  township  having  a  hundred  families  or  more  must  keep 
a  school  wherein  grammar" also  was  taught.  In  no  place  was 
the  term  over  four  month3  in  a  year ;  lessons  were  chiefly  con 
fined  to  the  catechism  and  the  spelling-book,  and  generally 
some  young  minister  was  the  teacher.  Such  was  the  modest 
beginning  of  the  public-school  system  of  the  United  States. 

Neither  were  the  Indians  neglected.  John  Eliot,  a  learned 
and  enthusiastic  missionary,  devoted  his  whole  life  to  in 
structing  them  in  the  Christian  religion.  Amid  many  dan 
gers  and  hardships  this  noble  man  and  his  assistants  made 
numerous  converts  among  the  simple  red  men  of  Massachu 
setts  and  neighboring  regions. 

86.  Religious  intolerance.  The  Puritans  had  come  to 

1  The  Charlestown  records  of  the  winter  of  1630-31  state  that  the  "people 
were  necessitated  to  live  on  clams  and  mussels,  and  grounp1  nuts  and  acorns." 
When  the  distress  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  was  at  its  height,  a  ship  arrived 
from  England,  "laden  with  provisions  for  them  all."  On  February  22,  1631, 
there  was  held  a  "day  of  Thanksgiving  for  this  ship's  arrival."  It  was  the  first 
regularly  appointed  Thanksgiving  Day  in  the  United  States. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES  85 

America  to  secure  religious  freedom  for  themselves,  but 
they  would  not  receive  persons  of  another  faith.  This  nar 
row  intolerance  was  common  enough  in  the  seventeenth 
century ;  but  the  Puritans  had  left  England  to  escape  a  simi 
lar  injustice  toward  themselves.  Their  conduct  was  very  dif 
ferent  from  the  free  and  noble  spirit  in  which  Lord  Balti 
more  planted  Maryland.  It  would  have  been  far  better  for 
all  the  English  colonies  in  America  if  they  had  followed  his 
example. 

87.  Religious  disturbances.  Although  persons  who  were 
not  Puritans  knew  that  they  would  be  unwelcome  in  Mas 
sachusetts,  many  such  persisted  in  coming  over  from  Eng 
land.  It  was  a  time  of  great  religious  disturbance  in  the 
motherland,  in  which  many  strange  sects  were  being  formed ; 
hence  the  newcomers  brought  with  them  various  forms  of 
belief.  These  greatly  disturbed  the  Puritan  leaders,  who 
decided  that  all  "  contentious  and  heretical  folk  "  should 
be  driven  forth  as  public  enemies. 

Just  such  a  "  heretic  and  disturber  "  was  Roger  Williams, 
of  Salem.  He  was  in  truth  an  eloquent,  lovable,  and  pious 
Welshman,  whose  opinions  were  far  ahead  of  his  time.  Sev 
eral  of  his  ideas  struck  at  the  very  foundations  of  the  Puritan 
church  and  of  the  colony  itself.  He  held :  — 

(a)  That  every  man  had  a  right  to  practice  whatever  reli 
gion  best  pleased  him. 

(b)  That  the  Government  ought  not  to  oblige  people  to 
attend  church  or  pay  taxes  to  support  worship. 

(c)  That  the  King  had  no  right  to  make  grants  of  land  in 
America,  for  it  really  belonged  to  the  Indians.1 

The  colonial  officials  declared  that  such  opinions  could 
not  with  safety  be  permitted  in  Massachusetts.  The  of 
fender  was  therefore  ordered  to  leave  at  once  for  England ; 
but  instead,  he  escaped  in  the  bitter  cold  and  deep  snow  of 

1  Another  person  to  disturb  the  Puritans  was  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  an 
able,  keen-witted  woman,  who  attracted  large  crowds  whenever  she  lectured 
on  religious  subjects.  But  her  teachings  were  not  those  of  the  ministers  and 
magistrates,  so  in  1638  she  and  her  followers  were  banished.  Some  of  them 
founded  New  Hampshire;  but  Anne  herself  followed  Roger  Williams  to  Rhode 
Island,  and  there  established  Portsmouth  and  Newport. 


86  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

mid-winter,  to  seek  refuge  in  an  Indian  hut  on  the  shores  of 
Narragansett  Bay.  There,  he  and  his  few  followers  founded 
Providence  (1636),  which  was  the  first  settlement  in  what 
is  now  Rhode  Island. 

Twenty  years  later  a  number  of  newly  arrived  Quakers 
made  much  disturbance  in  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  by 
urging  a  separation  of  church  and  state.  They  also  had 
religious  scruples  against  paying  taxes,  or  serving  in  the 
militia,  or  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  colony.  Many 
of  them  were  hanged,  others  flogged  and  fined,  and  the 
rest  of  them  banished  to  Rhode  Island,  which  by  this  time 
had  become  a  refuge  for  all  manner  of  religious  and  politi 
cal  dissenters. 

Many  right-minded  folk  in  Massachusetts  now  realized, 
however,  that  it  was  unjust  to  punish  in  a  cruel  manner 
those  who  differed  from  the  authorities  about  religion  and 
politics,  and  protested  against  it.  The  spirit  of  toleration 
slowly  grew,  and  there  came  into  New  England  more  and 
more  Protestants  who  were  not  Puritans.  But  Roman  Catho 
lics  and  Church  of  England  people  were  still  badly  treated, 
and  complained  so  bitterly  that  King  Charles  II  decided  to 
protect  them. 

88.  The  rule  of  Andros.  The  King  was  by  this  time  very 
angry  at  Massachusetts,  for  several  reasons :  - 

(a)  Massachusetts  merchants  and  sailors  were  not  obey 
ing  the  "  Navigation  Laws,"  which  sought  to  regulate  the 
commerce  of  the  colonies  (page  109). 

(b)  The  colony  manufactured  money  of  its  own,  and  this 
violated  the  coinage  laws  of  England. 

(c)  It  welcomed  persons  who  in  various  ways  offended  the 
home  Government,  even  some  who  were  accused  of  treason 
toward  the  nation. 

(d)  It  harshly  treated  Roman  Catholics  and  members  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  on  many  occasions  showed  dis 
respect  for  both  the  English  Church  and  the  Government. 

In  1684  the  King  punished  the  colony  by  taking  away  its 
independent  charter  and  making  it  a  "  royal  "  province. 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND   COLONIES 


He  died  soon  after  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  James 
II,  who  adopted  Charles's  plans  and  ideas  as  his  own  and 
sent  over  Sir  Edmund  Andros  to  be  viceroy  of  New  England, 
New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 

The  rule  of  Andros  was  arrogant  and  tyrannical,  and  the 
plucky  men  of  Boston  were  so  indignant  that  in  1689  they  re 
volted  against  him  and  imprisoned  him.  But  just  then  Wil 
liam  and  Mary  came  to  the 
throne  of  England.  They 
were  more  liberal  monarchs 
than  their  predecessor,  and 
Andros  was  ordered  back  to 
London  to  meet  the  com 
plaints  that  had  been  made 
against  him  by  the  Bostoni- 
ans.  He  was  acquitted,  how 
ever,  by  the  home  Govern 
ment,  which  at  the  same 
time  tried  to  satisfy  Mas 
sachusetts  by  giving  her  a 
new  charter. 

This  document,  however, 
\vas  not  so  liberal  as  the 
colonists  had  hoped  for ;  and 
for  many  years  there  were, 
as  in  Virginia  and  most  of 
the  other  colonies,  bitter 
quarrels  between  the  King's 
governors  and  the  people. 
The  latter  stoutly  held  out,  on  every  occasion,  for  a  recog 
nition  of  their  old-time.  English  rights  and  privileges,  for 
which  the  aristocratic  governors  often  had  little  respect. 
These  contests  served,  both  in  the  North  and  the  South, 
to  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  opposition  to  royalty;  so  that 
when  at  last  the  Revolution  came,  the  people  of  nearly 
every  colony  were  ready  for  it. 

89.  Founding  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.    In  1622, 


•'••V/.'v '•:•': '-V •.:'•:•/: '•'•  •; ;••'. ;-'.;.-:;-;:\     z  &\£ap«  Cod  fc, 

"•-^-•-^      1'l^ouh.A      ^^\  J* 

>:p^  ;^  :^v  M  :    \  *   n  ^ 

.:  o/  :.#  vfr:ijc°|    V^)  v 


SETTLEMENTS  ON  THE  NEW 
ENGLAND  COAST 


88 


THE   PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


N   E  W      H   A  M  P. 


two  years  after  Plymouth  was  founded,  Sir  Ferdinando 
Gorges  and  John  Mason  obtained  from  the  King  a  large 
grant  of  land  lying  between  the  Kennebec  and  the  Merri- 
mac  Rivers.  A  few  years  later  they  secured  other  grants  and 
founded  Portsmouth  and  Dover.  From  these  settlements 
grew  both  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  which  afterwards 
were  joined  to  Massachusetts.  In  1741  New  Hampshire 

became  again  a  separate 
colony,  but  Maine  was 
not  detached  from  Mas 
sachusetts  until  1820. 

90.  Founding  of  Con 
necticut.  Some  enter 
prising  Plymouth  men 
marched  across  country 
in  1633  and  built  a  fur- 
trading  hut  at  Windsor, 
in  the  beautiful  valley  of 
the  Connecticut  River. 
Soon  after  this  Puritan 
farmers  from  Massachu 
setts,  who  were  now  be 
ginning  to  feel  crowded 
in  their  old  home,1  came 
in  large  numbers  to  the 

Connecticut  Valley.  They  built  new  towns  there  and  grad 
ually  crowded  out  the  Dutch  of  New  Amsterdam,  who  were 
trading  with  the  Connecticut  Indians.  By  1637  there  were 
eight  hundred  Englishmen  in  the  towns  of  Windsor,  Hart 
ford,  and  Wethersfield;  and  besides  these  towns,  there  was 
Saybrook,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Two  years  later  the 
representatives  from  Windsor  and  Wethersfield  joined  those 

1  When  all  the  convenient  tillable  land  in  a  New  England  town  had  been 
taken  up,  a  new  congregation  would  be  formed,  consisting  of  young  married 
couples  and  the  more  adventurous  of  the  older  folk.  Headed  by  a  minister 
selected  by  themselves,  the  colonists  would  plant  a  new  town  in  the  wilderness 
—  seldom  so  far  distant,  however,  from  the  nearest  settlement  but  that  they 
could  aid  each  other  in  case  of  attack  by  Indians.  In  this  manner  New  England 
increased  in  size,  town  by  town,  until  it  contained  a  large  population. 


M'A'iS   S   A    C/H   U'S    E/T  T  S 


SETTLEMENTS    IN   THE    CONNEC 
TICUT  VALLEY 


THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES  89 

elected  at  Hartford  and  in  that  town  adopted  the  first  writ 
ten  rules  of  government  made  by  the  people  themselves 
known  in  the  United  States.1  This  instrument  provided 
for  the  political  equality  of  every  citizen.  It  formed  the 
three  towns  into  a  republic,2  with  laws  "  for  the  people  by 
the  people";  and  this  republic  more  nearly  resembled  our 
present  Federal  Government  than  any  scheme  of  union  up 
to  that  time  invented  by  the  other  colonies. 

During  the  year  1637  the  Pequot  Indians  attacked  the 
whites,  but  were  badly  defeated.  After  this  victory,  settlers 
were  more  willing  to  come  to  Connecticut,  which  was  then 
the  "  Far  West  "  of  English  colonization.  New  Haven,3 
Guilford,  Milford,  Stamford,  and  Southold,  on  Long  Island, 
were  quickly  established,  and  soon  (1643)  formed  them 
selves  into  a  union,  which  was  known  as  the  Colony  of  New 
Haven.  The  laws  drawn  up  by  the  inhabitants  for  their 
own  government  were  closely  based  on  those  of  Moses;  for 
instance,  there  were  fourteen  offenses  for  which  men  might 
be  hanged;  and  there  was  no  trial  by  jury,  because  Moses 
had  not  provided  for  it.  In  1662  all  the  towns  then  existing 
in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Connecticut  were  united  under 
a  charter.4 

1  The  reader  will  remember  the  laws  governing  the  Virginia  colony,  also  the 
compact  signed  on  the  Mayflower  (p.  79).    But  this  Hartford  constitution  was 
longer  and  written  in  greater  detail,  hence  was  more  like  those  adopted  in  later 
years  by  some  of  the  other  colonies  and  afterward  by  all  of  the  States. 

The  principal  man  in  the  Connecticut  colony  was  Thomas  Hooker,  a  clergy 
man.  Unlike  Winthrop  of  Massachusetts,  who  thought  that  only  a  few  men 
were  capable  of  governing,  Hooker  argued  that  "the  foundation  of  authority 
is  laid  in  the  free  consent  of  the  people."  He  also  said,  "In  matters  which  con 
cern  common  good  a  general  council  chosen  by  all  to  transact  business  which 
concerns  all  I  conceive  most  suitable  to  rule  and  most  safe  for  the  relief  of  the 
whole." 

2  Nowhere  in  the  constitution  was  there  any  mention  of  the  King. 

3  New  Haven  was  founded  in  1638  by  a  party  of  Puritan  settlers,  mostly 
from  Massachusetts.  Thcophilus  Eaton,  a  well-to-do  merchant  recently  arrived 
from  London,  was  for  many  years  the  governor.    In  this  colony,  church  and 
state  were  closely  allied. 

4  Two  noteworthy  incidents  occurred  in  the  colonial  history  of  Connecti 
cut:— 

(a)  When  Charles  II  came  to  the  throne,  he  hunted  down  the  "  regicide" 
judges,  as  he  called  them,  who  had  ordered  his  father,  Charles  I,  to  be  be 
headed,  and  cruelly  executed  those  whom  he  could  catch.  Three  of  the  judges, 
Goffe,  Dixwell,  and  Whalley,  had  fled  to  New  Haven  where  fhe  people  helped 


90  THE  PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

91.  Founding  of  Rhode  Island.    As  Rhode  Island  had 
first  been  settled  by  persons  banished  from  Massachusetts 
for  their  religious  opinions,  who  declared  that  this  new 
colony   should   be  a  home  of  religious    freedom,    it    was 
quickly  settled  by   all   sorts  of  dissenters.    In    1644   the 
towns  of  Providence,  Newport,  and  Warwick  obtained  a 
charter  from  Parliament,  under  the  name  of  Colony  of 
Providence  Plantations.  This  gave  to  the  people  their  cher 
ished  English  right  of  self-government,  and  three  years  later 
they  passed  a  law  that  "  all  men  may  walk  as  their  con 
science  persuades  them."    Owing,  however,  to  the  presence 
of  a  great  number  of  religious  zealots,   who  were  always 
quarreling  with  each  other,  Rhode  Island  was  long  a  hot-bed 
of  disorder.    The  colony  did  not  thrive  until  this  turbulent 
spirit  quieted  down. 

92.  New  England  Confederation.  Up  to  the  year  1643 
the  various  towns  or  colonial  groups  in  New  England  were 
practically  little  independent  republics.    Each  governed  it 
self,  and  had  scarcely  any  help  from  its  neighbors.   But  the 
following  troubles  were  now  brewing:  - 

(a)  The  Dutch  of  New  York  were  pushing  their  fur  trade 
to  the  north  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  acting  as  though  they 
owned  Connecticut. 

(b)  The  Indians  were  becoming  uneasy,  and  threatening 
to  drive  all.  Englishmen  into  the  sea. 

(c)  The  French  in  Canada  were  building  fur-trade  posts  in 
what  are  now  Maine  and  New  Hampshire;  and  frequently 
encouraged  the  savages  to  attack  the  most  northern  English 
settlements. 

(d)  The  New  England  colonists  were  afraid  that  the  fierce 

them  to  escape  from  their  pursuers,  who  chased  them  even  to  America.  For  this 
reason  Charles  II  bitterly  hated  the  New  Haven  colony. 

(b)  In  1662  Charles  issued  a  charter  to  Connecticut,  in  which  he  gave  the 
colonists  the  right  to  govern  themselves  under  their  own  free  constitution. 
James  II  wished  to  take  away  this  charter,  because  it  was  too  liberal,  and  com 
manded  the  viceroy  of  New  England,  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  to  demand  its  sur 
render  by  the  colony.  Andros,  accompanied  by  a  body  of  troops,  went  to  Hart 
ford  (1687)  to  get  the  document,  but  could  not  find  it  because  the  people  had 
hidden  it  in  the  hollow  trunk  of  a  great  oak  tree. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  91 

struggle  then  going  on  in  England  between  King  Charles  I 
and  his  Parliament  might  bring  them  trouble. 

(e)  The  King  was  declaring  that  his  American  subjects, 
were  much  too  independent,  and  needed  correction. 

Wise  men  among  the  New  Englanders  saw  that  unless  the 
colonies  could  be  united  in  some  way,  they  must  remain 
weak,  and  thus  be  an  easy  prey  to  the  Dutch,  the  Indians, 
and  to  their  own  king.  In  1643,  therefore,  delegates  from  the 
colonies  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and 
New  Haven  l  met  in  Boston  and  formed  a  league,  called 
'The  United  Colonies  of  New  England."  Under  this  agree 
ment  each  colony  was  to  manage  its  own  local  affairs,  but 
a  board  of  eight  commissioners  were  to  look  after  matters 
affecting  all  of  the  colonies,  such  as  the  carrying  on  of  war. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  made  in  our  country  toward  a 
union  of  the  English  colonies. 

The  league  lasted  for  over  forty  years,  and  under  it  the 
New  Englanders  grew  accustomed  to  working  together  for 
a  common  purpose.  In  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  this  ex 
perience  was  of  great  value  to  them. 

93.  King  Philip's  War.  New  Englanders  were  much 
kinder  to  the  Indians  than  were  the  people  of  most  other 
English  colonies.  But  they  could  not  turn  the  wilderness  into 
farms  and  villages  without  driving  away  the  game  and  thus 
making  it  more  difficult  for  the  Indians  to  live.  This  angered 
the  latter,  and  now  and  then  they  attacked  the  newcomers. 

Just  a  hundred  years  before  the  opening  of  the  War  of  the 
Revolution,  the  brave  and  able  King  Philip,  chief  of  a  tribe 
dwelling  along  Narragansett  Bay,  formed  a  great  league 
of  red  men  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecti 
cut,  and  tried  to  drive  the  whites  out  of  the  country.  For 
two  years  (1675-77),  this  confederacy  carried  on  a  disas 
trous  war,  in  which  hundreds  of  homes  in  the  outlying  settle 
ments  were  burned,  and  thousands  of  men,  women,  and 

1  Rhode  Island  was  not  invited,  because  Plymouth  claimed  that  the  towns 
in  that  colony  were  on  land  belonging  to  her;  and  further,  the  Rhode  Islanders 
were,  as  we  have  just  read,  not  liked  by  the  Puritans. 


92  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

children  were  murdered  by  the  pitiless  savages,  or  carried 
away  as  captives,  to  be  adopted  into  the  tribes.  The  united 
colonies  desperately  defended  themselves,  until  at  last  King 
Philip  and  a  thousand  of  his  warriors  were  slain  and  the 
revolt  was  crushed.  After  that  white  men  were  supreme  in 
New  England.1 

.  QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  differences  in  the  reasons  for  English  migration  to  James 
town  and  to  Plymouth. 

2.  State  clearly  the  successive  events  in  the  history  of  the  Pilgrims  from 
Scrooby  to  Plymouth.   Locate  the  scene  of  these  events  on  a  globe  or 
on  a  map. 

3.  What  advantage  of  location  did  the  Virginia  colonists  have  in  contrast 
to  that  of  the  Pilgrims? 

4.  Were  the  conditions  which  forced  the  Pilgrims  to  work  hard  an  ad 
vantage  or  not?    Discuss. 

5.  Suggest  why  the  King  might  have  been  glad  to  have  men  of  the  high 
character  of  Endicott,  Wiuthrop,  and  the  other  Bay  colonists  leave 
England. 

6.  Why  was  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  so  much  more  prosperous 
from  the  beginning  than  the  Plymouth  Colony? 

7.  Show  that  the  early  New  Englanders  believed  in  education. 

8.  Why  did  they  settle  in  towns? 

9.  State  the  difference  between  the  town  meeting  and  the  representative 
form  of  government.  What  qualifications  of  the  Massachusetts  voter 
were  then  required  that  are  not  required  now? 


1  The  Witchcraft  delusion.  In  the  days  about  which  we  are  reading,  nearly 
everybody  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  America,  believed  that  certain  persons 
were  friendly  with  evil  spirits,  and  induced  these  demons  to  do  harm  to  other 
people  in  the  neighborhood.  Such  persons  were  called  "witches,"  and  the  evil 
work  which  they  were  supposed  to  do  was  known  as  "witchcraft."  Almost  any 
ugly  old  woman,  who  acted  at  all  queerly,  was  in  danger  of  being  hanged  or 
even  burned  if  some  crazy  or  malicious  person  asserted  that  she  had  "be 
witched  "  him.  When  an  epidemic  raged,  or  an  unknown  disease  broke  out,  a 
frenzy  of  fear  would  sweep  over  the  neighborhood.  At  such  times  even  young 
women  and  tender  children  might  be  accused  of  witchcraft,  and  on  very  flimsy 
evidence  be  sentenced  to  suffer  terrible  deaths." 

Such  a  frenzy  broke  out  in  the  small  Massachusetts  town  of  Salem,  in  1692. 
Before  people  recovered  their  senses  hundreds  of  innocent  persons  were  put  in 
jail  and  nineteen  were  hanged.  The  testimony  against  these  unfortunates  was  so 
slight  that  the  next  year,  when  the  craze  was  over,  the  conscience-stricken  towns 
people  marveled  at  their  cruel  and  horrible  delusion.  This  episode  will  always 
remain  an  ugly  blot  on  the  fair  history  of  New  England.  But  they  were  still 
hanging  witches  in  England,  twenty  years  later,  and  even  to-day  the  belief  in 
them  exists  to  some  extent  in  all  civilized  countries,  among  very  ignorant 
people. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES  93 

10.  The  emigration  from  Massachusetts  to  Connecticut  was  the  first 
western  migration  in  the  territory  now  known  as  the  United  States. 
Beginning  with  this  one,  make  a  list  in  your  history  notebook  of  later 
western  emigrations  of  which  you  will  read  as  you  study  this  history. 

11.  Indicate  on  the  map  of  New  England  the  six  settlements  or  groups  of 
settlements  that  had  been  made  by  1640. 

12.  Why  was  the  New  England  Confederation  important?    In  what  way 
did  it  seem  intolerant? 

13.  Explain  the  following:  "God  sifted  a  whole  nation  that  he  might 
send  choice  grain  over  into  the  wilderness." 

14.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  eastern  North  America.    From  this  map  dis 
cuss  the  dangers  to  the  English  from  the  French  and  Spanish. 

15.  Important  date:  1620  —  The  founding  of  Plymouth. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  letter  from  Holland  to  a  friend  left  at  Scrooby,  giving  reasons 
why  you  think  it  best  to  go  to  America. 

2.  Describe  in  writing,  or  dramatize,  an  interview  with  Samoset,  or 
Canonicus. 

3.  The  Mayflower  is  about  to   sail  on    the  return  voyage.    Governor 
Bradford,  knowing  that  some  are  tempted  to  return  with  her,  makes 
an  address  urging  them  to  remain.   Write  what  he  may  have  said. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  Holland  describing  the  terrible  first  winter 
in  New  England,  but  telling  your  hopes  for  the  future. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  The  name  "New  England." 

2.  Religious  intolerance  in  England. 

3.  The  Pilgrims  in  Holland. 

4.  The  Pilgrims  emigrate  to  America. 

5.  Beginning  of  self-government  in  New  England. 

6.  The  Pilgrims'  early  pioneer  experiences. 

7.  Origin  and  growth  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

8.  Town  meetings  and  the  beginning  of  representative  government. 
9-  Beginning  of  education. 

10.  Religious  intolerance  and  disturbances. 
IT.  Troubles  with  the  King  about  government. 

12.  Founding  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire. 

13.  Early  Connecticut. 

14.  First  written  constitution  in  the  United  States. 
15-  Beginning  of  Rhode  Island. 

16.  The  New  England  Confederation. 

17.  Wrar  with  the  Indians. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES 

94.  New  Netherland  established.  Soon  after  the  Hudson 
River  had  been  discovered  for  Holland  by  Henry  Hudson 
(1609),  the  region  was  named  New  Netherland,1  and  en 
terprising  Dutch  traders  began  to  buy  furs  from  its  ab 
origines.  In  1623  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  a  rich 
and  powerful  corporation  which  now  had  a  monopoly  of  the 

Dutch  fur  trade 
in  America,  sent 
over  a  number 
of  settlers,  who 
built  Fort  Or 
ange,  near  the 
site  of  the  pre 
sent  Albany,2 
and  made  several 
other  small  set 
tlements  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  New 
Netherland. 

95.  New  Am 
sterdam.    Three 

years  later,  it  was  decided  to  erect  a  large  fort  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  River,  to  be  called  New  Amsterdam.  For 
this  purpose,  Governor  Peter  Minuit,  the  Company's  Amer 
ican  director,  bought  from  the  Indians  the  whole  of  Manhat 
tan  Island  for  twenty-four  dollars'  worth  of  beads,  ribbons, 

1  New  Netherland  extended  up  the  Hudson  River  as  far  as  Albany,  and  in 
cluded  all  the  land  between  the  Hudson  (then  known  as  "North  River")  and 
the  Delaware  (which  the  Dutch  called  "  South  River"). 

2  In  1614  or  1615,  Dutch  fur  traders  erected  Fort  Nassau  on  an  island  in 
the  river  near  Albany ;  but  because  of  a  flood  this  place  was  abandoned  in  1617. 


I'aintinyby  F/cdencks.   Courtesy,  Title  Guarantee  and  Trust  Co.,  A'.  1' 

THE    PURCHASE   OF   MANHATTAN    ISLAND 


SPANISH,  ENGLISH 

FRENCH  &  DUTCH  CLAIMS 

IN  NORTH  AMERICA, 

ABOUT  1660 


THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  95 

and  other  ornaments;  this  was  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
and  a  fifth  cents  an  acre.1 

The  Dutch  predicted  that  New  Amsterdam  would  in 
time  become  the  chief  town  in  North  America.  This  pro 
phecy  was,  years  later,  fulfilled  under  the  American  rule; 
and  ever  since  then  not  only  has  the  city  on  Manhattan 
Island  been  our  most  populous  seaport  but  her  harbor  has 
been  one  of  the  busiest  in  the  world. 

New  Amsterdam  grew  steadily.  Settlers  came  from  vari 
ous  European  countries,  from  which  many  had  been  driven 
because  of  their  religious  ideas;  for  the  same  reason  not  a 
few  of  the  inhabitants  migrated  here  from  New  England. 
In  1643  it  was  reported  that  eighteen  languages  were  spoken 
on  Manhattan  Island.2 

96.  Early  prosperity.  For  two  years,  commencing  in 
1643,  the  Algonquian  Indians  of  the  neighborhood  made  war 
on  New  Netherland.  But  fortunately  the  Iroquois,  of 
northern  New  York,  —  who  were  enemies  both  of  the 
French  settlers  in  Canada  and  of  the  Algonquians,  —  soon 
became  friendly  with  the  Dutch  fur  traders,  and  helped 
them  put  down  the  uprising. 

The  early  governors  sent  out  by  the  Company  were  neither 
sensible  nor  honest.  In  1647,  however,  there  arrived  a  brave 

1  November  5,  1626,  one  Peter  Schaghen  wrote  to  the  States-General  of  the 
Netherlands,  at  The  Hague:  "They  have  purchased  the  Island  Manhattes 
from  the  Indians  for  the  value  of  60  guilders  [$24  in  American  money];  't  is 
11,000  morgens  [acres]  in  size." 

The  present  acreage  of  Manhattan  Island  is  14,038,  for  since  1626  there  has 
been  much  filling  along  the  shores.  The  assessed  valuation  of  the  bare  land  com 
posing  the  island  is  now  over  $2,500,000,000;  the  buildings  and  other  property 
upon  it  are  valued  at  about  $1,500,000,000  more.  A  single  square  foot  of  soil 
on  Manhattan  is,  in  some  places,  now  worth  nearly  twenty-five  times  what 
Minuit  paid  for  the  entire  island. 

2  In  1629  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  devised  a  scheme  for  inducing 
farmers  to  settle  along  the  Hudson  River.   Any  member  of  the  Company  might 
bring  over  from  Europe,  at  his  own  expense,  at  least  fifty  persons  over  fifteen 
years  of  age,  and  place  them  on*1and  to  be  bought  by  him  from  the  Indians. 
For  this  service  to  the  colony,  he  was  given  the  title  of  "  patroon  "  (or  patron). 
He  made  all  the  laws  for  his  people,  to  whom  he  had  given  tools,  cattle,  and 
houses,  and  he  was  their  governor  and  judge.    For  ten  years  they  could  not 
leave  their  homes  without  his  consent.   Several  rich  Hollanders  were  attracted 
to  New  Netherland  by  this  aristocratic  system,  and  their  families  long  continued 
to  be  leaders  in  the  politics  and  society  of  New  York  State. 


96 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


old  soldier,  Governor  Peter  Stuyvesant,  who  had  both  of 
these  virtues.  He  was  irritable  and  tyrannical,  and  always 
quarreling  with  the  people;  but  under  his  rule  the  colony 
prospered  as  it  never  had  done  before,  and  both  the  popula 
tion  and  the  fur  trade  doubled.1 

97.  Captured  by  the  English.  In  1664  New  Amsterdam 
had  a  population  of  fifteen  hundred  souls.  The  village  was 
built  on  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  extended  from 


Painting  by  E.  If.  Henry.  Covrtety,  Title  Guarantee  and  lYust  Co.,  A'. 
A   STREET    IN    NEW   AMSTERDAM 
In  the  distance  is  shown  the  old  wall  from  which  Wall  Street  takes  its  name 

the  East  River  to  the  Hudson  River.  Its  northern  boundary 
was  a  great  wall  of  earth,  along  the  top  of  which  was  planted 
a  stout  palisade  of  logs ;  the  great  timbers  were  set  on  end, 
their  tops  sharpened  to  a  point,  and  all  joined  securely  to 
gether  by  bolts  and  straps  of  iron.  This  formed  a  barrier 
against  an  enemy  that  might  approach  by  land,  from  the 
north.  Wall  Street,  which  is  now  the  banking  center  of  the 
United  States,  occupies  the  ground  where  this  old  defense 
stood.  At  the  little  stone  battery  on  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  island,  overlooking  both  the  bay  and  the  two  rivers, 

1  Stuyvesant  had  lost  a  leg  in  war  for  his  country.  The  wooden  substitute 
which  he  wore  was  bound  with  ferules  of  silver,  so  the  people  called  him  "Old 
Silverleg." 


THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES 


97 


were  stationed  twenty  small  cannon  for  guarding  the  ap 
proach  by  water.1  Such  defenses  were  strong  enough  to  repel 
Indians,  but  they  could  not  keep  out  civilized  invaders  who 
might  come  armed  with  large  cannon. 

One  day  in  August,  1664,  when  England  and  Holland 
were  at  peace,  four  English  war  vessels  unexpectedly  ap 
peared  off  the  Battery,  bearing  the  demand  of  King  Charles 
II  that  New  Netherland  surrender,  because  he  claimed  that 


Courtesy,  Title  Guarantee  and  Trust  Co.,  N.  F. 

THE  SURRENDER  OF  NEW  AMSTERDAM 

The  meeting  of  the  English  and  the  Dutch  commissioners  took  place  at  Peter  Stuyvesant's  country  home 

the  Dutch  were  occupying  English  territory.2  It  was  of 
course  useless  for  Governor  Stuyvesant  to  resist,  so  Dutch 
rule  in  New  Netherland  came  suddenly  to  a  close.3  England 
was  now  in  possession  of  the  entire  Atlantic  Coast  from  the 

1  The  name  "  The  Battery  "  still  designates  this  point  in  New  York's  water 
front. 

2  The  English  had  always  claimed  the  entire  eastern  part  of  the  country 
because  of  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots. 

3  The  garrison  consisted  of  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  untrained  men, 
whereas  the  English  had  brought  a  much   larger  number  of  skilled  soldiers, 
besides  ninety  cannon  with  which  to  bombard  the  town  if  necessary.    The 
Governor  fumed  and  fretted,  declaring,  "  I  would  rather  be  carried  to  my  grave 
than  yield."   But  in  spite  of  him  his  frightened  fellow  officers  eagerly  hoisted 
the  white  flag  of  surrender. 


98 


THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 


St.  Lawrence  River  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Florida; 
but  perhaps  the  most  important  of  her  holdings  was  the 
island  of  Manhattan,  which  controlled  the  great  interior 
route  connecting  Canada  with  New  York  Bay. 

King  Charles  gave  New  Netherland  to  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  after  that  it  was  called  New  York,  the 
same  name  being  also  given  to  the  city  of  New  Amsterdam. 
Fort  Orange  was  now  called  Albany,  another  of  the  Duke's 
titles. 

Nine  years  later,  during  a  short  war  between  England 
and  Holland,  the  Dutch  easily  recaptured  Manhattan; 
but  the  following  year  peace  was  arranged, 
and  Holland  reluctantly  gave  up  the  pro 
vince,  which  under  English  rule  had  grown 
so  fast  that  it  then  contained  seven  thou 
sand  inhabitants. 

98.  Struggles  for  liberty.  While  the 
people  of  New  York  enjoyed  religious 
freedom  under  their  new  rulers,  the  Eng 
lish,  they  had  various  other  reasons  to 
complain  of  them :  they  did  not  carry  on 
as  good  a  school  system  as  the  Dutch  had 
supported;  the  colonists  were  not  given 
a  representative  assembly;  and  nearly  all 
the  power  now  rested  with  the  Governor 
and  his  Council,  who  were  appointed  by 
the  Duke  of  York. 

After  eighteen  years  of  dissatisfaction, 
the  Duke  finally  consented  to  allow  the 
people  to  have  an  assembly.  But  when 
he  became  King  James  II  he  abolished  this  body,  refused 
to  allow  any  schools  to  be  carried  on  except  those  licensed 
by  the  Church  of  England,  and  placed  New  York,  together 
with  New  England  and  New  Jersey,  under  the  harsh  rule 
of  Governor  Sir  Edmund  Andros.  New  York  regained  her 
assembly  only  when  William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne 
and  the  unpopular  Andros  was  ordered  home. 


SETTLEMENTS 
ABOUT   THE    HUD 
SON    RIVER 


THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES 


99 


As  elsewhere  in  the 
colonies  there  continued 
to  be  more  or  less  quar 
reling,  often  over  very 
small  matters,  between 
the  various  governors 
and  the  people  until  the 
opening  of  the  Revolu 
tionary  War.  At  the 
time,  these  ,  disputes 
seemed  unfortunate ; 
but  they  served  the 
very  good  purpose  of 
teaching  the  colonists 
that  their  only  road  to 
political  liberty  lay  in 
freedom  from  the  rule 
of  England. 

99.  The  planting  of 
New  Jersey.  When  the 
Duke  of  York  took  pos 
session  of  New  Nether- 
land  he  gave  to  two  of 
his  friends 1  the  portion 
thereof  lying  southwest  of  the  Hudson  River.  After  sev 
eral  changes  of  ownership  New  Jersey  was  (1/02)  made  a 
"  royal  "  province. 

1  Sir  John  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  The  province  was  named  New 
Jersey  because  Carteret,  while  governor  of  Jersey,  one  of  the  English  Channel 
Islands,  had  fought  bravely  for  King  Charles  II.  Philip  Carteret,  a  relative  of 
Sir  George,  came  out  as  governor  and  founded  the  town  of  Elizabeth;  and  soon 
some  colonists  from  Connecticut  established  Newark  and  Middletown. 

Berkeley  possessed  the  western  half  of  the  province,  or  West  Jersey,  but 
for  five  thousand  dollars  sold  his  share  to  a  party  of  Quakers.  West  Jersey  and 

NT"  Jersey  wcre  reunited  when  New  Jersey  was  made  a  "royal"  province. 

New  Jersey  colonists  had  religious  toleration  and  a  liberal  government,  with 
a  representative  assembly.  But  large  numbers  of  the  Dutch,  English,  and 
bcotch  settlers  had  bought  their  lands  from  the  Indians,  and  did  not  enjoy  pay 
ing  rent  to  Berkeley  and  Carteret.  This  led  to  long  and  bitter  wrangling.  There 
was  also  considerable  difficulty  with  Andros,  who  tried  to  levy  taxes  in  New 
Jersey,  claiming  that  it  was  still  a  part  of  New  York. 


THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES 


IOO 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


Its  colonists  enjoyed  a  mild  climate,  and  having  wisely 
treated  the  Indians  with  respect  and  paid  for  their  lands 
were  not  often  troubled  by  them.  Indeed,  so  friendly  were 
the  tribesmen  that  after  one  of  the  land-buying  treaties  a 
chief  declared  that  should  one  of  his  people  find  an  English 
man  asleep  and  alone  in  the  woods,  he  would  not  disturb 
the  slumber  of  the  red  men's  friend,  but  quietly  pass  by  in 

peace.  On  the  whole,  the  set 
tlement  was  prosperous  from 
the  start. 

loo.  Pennsylvania  founded. 
Prominent  among  the  Quakers 
of  England  was  William  Penn, 
whose  father,  an  admiral  in 
the  navy,  was  a  friend  of  King 
Charles  II.  William's  family 
strongly  opposed  his  religious 
views,  but  he  believed  that  he 
was  right  and  would  not  yield. 
Distressed  at  the  persecution 
to  which  he  and  his  fellow 
Quakers  were  being  subjected 
in  England,  he  determined  to 
found  a  large  Quaker  province 
in  the  American  wilderness, 
which  should  be  "a  free  colony  for  all  mankind."  In  1681 
the  King  signed  a  charter  giving  him  for  this  purpose  about 
forty-eight  thousand  square  miles  of  land  1  that  had  for 
merly  been  owned  by  the  Duke  of  York,  and  this  new  colony 
was  called  Pennsylvania.2  Penn  was  made  governor  and 
sole  owner  of  the  colony.  The  only  condition  was  that  the 

1  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Penn's  father,  the  English  Government  owed 
him  eighty  thousand  dollars.    Penn  arranged  with  the  King  to  take  in  payment 
this  large  tract  "in  the  parts  of  America  not  yet  cultivated  and  planted."  His 
Majesty  welcomed  this  as  an  easy  way  of  paying  his  debt. 

2  Meaning  "Penn's  woods."    The  proprietor  himself  wanted  it  called  New 
Wales;  but  the  King  did  not  like  this  name,  so  Penn  suggested  Sylvania.  Against 
Penn's  earnest  protest,  for  he  was  a  modest  man,  his  own  name  was  prefixed  by 
the  King,  making  it  Pennsylvania. 


WILLIAM    PENN 

At  the  age  of  twenty  two 


THE  MIDDLE   COLONIES  101 

King  should  have  a  fifth  part  of  all  gold  and  silver  ore  to 
be  found  there,  and  on  each  New  Year's  Day  was  to  be 
given  the  small  present  of  two  beaver  skins  as  a  continual 
reminder  that  his  Majesty  was  Penn's  master. 

During  the  first  year  three  thousand  persons  sailed  for 
Pennsylvania,  chiefly  from  England,  Wales,  Sweden,  France, 
and  Germany.  So  widely  advertised  was  the  colony  and  so 
attractive  did  it  seem  to  the  oppressed  people  of  Europe,  that 
within  a  few  years  no  less  than  seven  thousand  inhabitants 
were  comfortably  settled  along  the  fertile  river  banks  of 
eastern  Pennsylvania. 

101.  Penn's  arrival  in  the  colony.  In  the  autumn  of  1682 
Penn  himself  arrived  at  the  head  of  a  hundred  emigrants. 
"  As  they  sailed  up  the  Delaware  River,"  says  an  old  letter 
of  that  time,  "  they  received  visits  and  invitations  from  the 
inhabitants,  the  people  being  joyful  to' see  him;  both  Dutch, 
Swedes,  and  English  coming  up  to  New.Castle,  they  received 
and  entertained  him  with  great  expressiorrs-ol  joy."',  Dressed 
in  holiday  costumes  the  colonists  handed  their  governor  a 
key  to  open  the  little  fort  of  Newcastle.  J<  They /did 'deliver 
also  unto  him  one  turf,  with  a  twig  upon  it,  a  porringer 
writh  river  water  and  soil."    This  latter  was  an  ancient 
European  ceremony,  and  meant  that  he  owned  the  land 
and  water  hereabout,  and  all  that  grew  therein. 

102.  Philadelphia    founded.    During   the    year    before 
Penn's  coming  there  was  laid  out  the  principal  city,  Phila 
delphia  (meaning  "  brotherly  love  "),  at  the  junction  of  the 
Schuylkill  River  with  the  Delaware.    While  cabins  were 
being  built  for  them,  many  of  the  first  settlers  at  this  place 
lived  for  months  in  caves  dug  out  of  the  banks  of  the  Dela 
ware,  all  around  them  being  the  dense  forest,  trodden  only 
by  Indians  and  wild  animals.  But  on  his  arrival  Penn  found 
here  several  small  but  comfortable  houses,  and  by  the  close 
of  the  following  year  there  were  three  hundred  and  fifty- 
seven  dwellings. 

103.  Adoption  of  the  Great  Law.    In   December,  1682, 
Penn  met  at  Chester  with  the  first  assembly  of  his  province; 


102 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 


it  consisted  of  delegates  from  the  various  little  settlements. 
Acting  under  his  guidance  this  assembly  adopted  a  set 
of  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  people,  which 
was  called  "The  Great  Law."  Its  leading  provisions  were 
these :  — 

(a)  The  Colonial  Government  must  not  act  in  an  oppres 
sive  or  arbitrary  manner. 

(b)  All  taxpayers  might  vote,  and  public  office  might -be 
held  by  any  Christian,  no  matter  what  his  creed. 

(c)  Each  colonist  might  worship  God  as  he  saw  fit;  he 


Painting  hy  Benjamin  West,  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia 

PENN'S   TREATY   WITH   THE  INDIANS 

could  not  be  compelled,  against  his  will,  to  attend  or  sup 
port  any  particular  church. 

(d)  Prisoners  were  to  work  and  learn  trades,  and  efforts 
should  be  made  to  reform  them.    This  was  the  first  law 
enacted  by  English  people,  recognizing  the  duty  of  reforming 
criminals. 

(e)  Only  treason  and  murder  were  to  bepunished  by  death. 
(/)  Like  the  Puritans  the  Pennsylvania  assembly  laid 


THE   MIDDLE   COLONIES  103 

heavy  penalties  on  swearing,  lying,  dueling,  drunkenness, 
gambling,  "  clamorous  scolding  and  railing  with  their 
tongues,"  and  attendance  on  "  stage  plays  "  and  cruel 
public  sports. 

(g)  Children  over  twelve  years  of  age  must  be  taught 
trades  or  other  useful  occupations. 

(h)  And  what  was  very  important,  all  laws  were  to  be 
strictly  obeyed,  no  matter  who  might  be  the  offender. 

104.  The  Great  Treaty  with  the  Indians.    During  the 
early  summer,    Penn  held  a  council   with  the  neighbor 
ing  Indians  under  a  large  elm  tree,1  where  for  many  years 
such  conferences  had  been  held  between  the  savages  them 
selves.  Here,  after  much 

feasting,  speech-making, 
smoking  of  peace-pipes, 

shaking  of  hands    and      THE  p£NN  TREATY  WAMPUM  BELT 
gifts     of     peace  -  belts 

made  of  wampum,  ceremonies  of  which  our  Indians  have 
always  been  fond,  the  aborigines  solemnly  promised  to  be 
the  lasting  friends  of  these  peace-loving  Quakers,  to  whom 
they  sold  large  tracts  of  land  on  which  to  settle.  Both 
acted  throughout  in  a  spirit  of  brotherhood,  and  the  agree 
ment  which  they  signed  has  ever  since  been  known  as  the 
Great  Treaty. 2 

Indeed,  in  all  the  colonies,  the  Quakers,  whom  the  ab 
origines  called  "  Penn's  men,"  in  the  treatment  of  their  red 
neighbors  followed  the  Golden  Rule;  and  nearly  every  where 
they  suffered  far  less  from  Indian  attacks  than  did  other 
white  men. 

105.  The  Mason  and  Dixon  Line.   The  boundary  between 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  was  not  clearly  described  in 

*  This  was  at  Shackamaxon,  afterwards  Kensington,  now  a  part  of  Philadel 
phia.  The  "treaty  tree"  was  destroyed  by  a  storm  in  1810. 

2  The  wampum  peace-belt  presented  to  Penn  by  the  Indians  represents,  in. 
rude  figures  of  beadwork,  Penn  grasping  hands  with  the  local  chief.  It  is  larger 
than  those  used  on  ordinary  occasions,  being  twenty-six  inches  long  by  nine 
inches  wide,  and  thus  indicates  the  significance  attached  to  the  treaty  by  the 
Indians.  This  interesting  relic  is  still  preserved  by  the  Pennsylvania  Historical 
Society  at  Philadelphia. 


104  THE  PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

the  charters  of  the  two  colonies,  and  serious  disputes  arose 
as  to  where  it  should  be.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  passed 
before  the  Penn  and  Baltimore  families  came  to  an  agree 
ment  concerning  it.  In  1767  two  London  mathematicians, 
named  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  surveyed  and 
marked  for  them  a  satisfactory  boundary  for  two  hundred 
and  forty-six  miles,  and  this  has  ever  since  been  called 
the  "  Mason  and  Dixon  line."  It  is  famous  in  history, 
because  in  time  it  came  also  to  be  a  part  of  the  boundary 
between  the  free  and  the  slave  states.1 

1 06.  Later  history  of  Pennsylvania.   Although  Pennsyl 
vania's  treatment  of  the  Indians  was  wise,  and  her  colonial 
laws  more  liberal  than  those  adopted  by  most  of  her  neigh 
bors,  there  was  constant  trouble  in  the  province.    The  dif 
ferent  nationalities,  English,  Welsh,  Scotch-Irish,  Swedes, 
Dutch,  Germans,  and   French,  could  not  agree  with  each 
other;  and  the  colonists  grumbled  loudly  at  having,  year 
after  year,  to  pa}' rent  to  Penn  for  their  land  —  yet  this  was, 
the  only  way  in  which  he  could  be  repaid  for  his  great  ex 
penses.2  Nevertheless,  Pennsylvania  prospered  in  commerce 
and  agriculture,  and  became  more  populous  than  any  other 
colony  except  Virginia  and  Massachusetts;  and  Philadelphia 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  important  and  best-built  cities 
in  North  America.  Within  two  years  of  its  founding,  it  had 
a  population  of  two  thousand  souls. 

107.  Delaware.  New  Netherland  extended  as  far  as  the 
Delaware  River.    As  early  as  1631,  some  Dutch  patroons 
came  over  from  Hudson  River,  and  planted  farming  settle 
ments  and  fur-trading  posts  along  Delaware  Bay  and  River, 

1  In  reference  to  this  line,  the  South  is  popularly  called  "Dixie,"  which  is 
a  corruption  of   Dixon,  who  represented  the  Southern  claimant,  Lord  Balti 
more. 

2  Penn  stayed  in  the  colony  for  nearly  two  years'after  his  arrival.    He  made 
a  second  and  last  visit  from  1699  to  1701.  So  long  as  he  was  present  the  colonists 
were  quiet,  for  he  had  great  influence  over  them;  but  those  who  governed  for 
him  when  he  was  absent  were  not  so  tactful,  and  thus  brought  on  much  trouble 
for  themselves. 

After  Penn's  death  (1718)  his  rights  fell  to  his  heirs.  In  1778  Pennsylvania 
annulled  the  charter,  and  allowed  these  heirs  $650,000  for  their  unsettled  lands 
in  the  State. 


THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES  105 

in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Delaware;  but  the  Indians  soon 
destroyed  these  colonies. 

After  the  departure  of  the  Dutch,  a  party  of  Swedish 
fur  traders  appeared  (1638),  built  a  log  stockade  named 
Fort  Christina,  after  their  Queen,  on  the  site  of  Wilmington, 
and  called  the  region  New  Sweden.  Governor  Stuyvesant 
was  enraged  at  the  way  in  which  these  foreigners  made 
themselves  at  home  on  land  claimed  by  Holland;  so  in 
1655  he  went  with  an  armed  fleet  and  forced  them  to  sur 
render  their  post,  thus  putting  an  end  to  New  Sweden. 

When,  nine  years  later,  the  English  captured  all  Dutch 
territory  in  the  Middle  Colonies,  Lord  Baltimore  asked 
Charles  II  to  give  him  what  had  been  New  Sweden.  But 
Penn  also  wanted  this  small  tract,  so  that  his  colonists  might 
have  direct  access  to  the  ocean,  and  his  wish  was  granted. 
After  a  fewyears  he  added  it  to  hisprovinceof  Pennsylvania, 
although  he  allowed  it  to  have  its  own  assembly  and  deputy 
governor.  Later,  in  1704,  the  little  strip  was  made  a  sepa 
rate  colony,  under  the  name  of  Delaware,  but  it  long  had 
the  same  governor  as  Pennsylvania. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Upon  what  claim  did  the  English  base  their  demand  for  the  surrender 
of  New  Amsterdam? 

2.  How  did  it  happen  that  New  Amsterdam  was  later  called  New  York? 

3.  Name  four  events  of  interest  to  you  in  the  early  history  of  New  York. 

4.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  marvelous  growth  of  New  York  City? 

5.  The  Hudson  River  is  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery;  it  is  also 
interesting  because  of  historical  events  connected  with  it.   Make  from 
time  to  time  a  list  of  these  events  in  your  notebook. 

6.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  settlement  of  New  Jersey. 

7.  Account  for  the  rapid  growth  of  New  Jersey  from  its  settlement  to  the 
present  time. 

8.  What  was  the  motive  for  the  settlement  of  Pennsylvania? 

9.  Give  your  estimate  of  William  Penn. 

10.  Name  some  of  the  liberal  provisions  of  Penn's  charter  and  the  Great 
Law.   Of  what  other  great  Englishman,  the  founder  of  a  colony,  does 
Penn  remind  you? 

11.  Contrast  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  colonists  of  Virginia 
and  Massachusetts,  in  their  relations  to  the  Indians. 

12.  Explain  the  name  "Dixie." 


io6  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Contrast  New  Amsterdam  with  New  York  of  to-day. 

2.  A  character  study  of  Governor  Peter  Stuyvesant. 

3.  Describe  the  signing  of  "The  Great  Treaty."  Quote  from  the  speeches 
you  imagine  \\  illiam  Penn  and  the  Indians  to  have  made    This  mav 
be  dramatized. 

4.  Describe  either  of  the  two  following  incidents  in  the  life  of  William 
Penn:  (a)  the  King  gives  him  Pennsylvania;  (b)  his  arrival  in  Phila 
delphia. 

CHAPTER   OUTLINE 

1.  The  Dutch  fur  traders. 

2.  The  growth  of  New  Amsterdam  and  the  character  of  its  inhabitants. 

3.  Its  capture  by  the  English. 

4.  Disputes  with  governing  officials. 

5.  Founding  of  New  Jersey. 

6.  William  Penn  and  the  beginning  of  Pennsylvania. 

7.  Penn's  plan  of  government. 

8.  Relations  with  the  Indians. 

9.  Boundary  dispute  with  Maryland. 
10.  Beginning  of  Delaware. 


CHAPTER  XI 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND   CONDITIONS  IN    1750 

108.  Three  groups  of  colonies.  In  many  ways  colonial 
life  was  the  same  both  North  and  South,  but  there  were 
marked  differences  between  the  geography  and  climate  of 
the  Southern,  New  England  or  Northern,  and  Middle  Col 
onies;  and  their  people  also  differed  much    in    manners, 
customs,  and  occupations. 

109.  Southern  society.  The  planters  were  the  upper  class 
in  the  South.    They  were  well  educated,  had  stately  man 
ners,  were  hos 
pitable  to  stran 
gers,   wore   fine 

clothing,  and 
kept  numerous 
black  servants. 
Many  planters 
spent  their  lei 
sure  in  the  study 
of  politics,  and 
were  fond  of  mil 
itary  life.  From 
this  class  came 
Washington  and 
other  Southern 
leaders  of  the  Revolution;  indeed,  for  a  long  time  after  the 
Revolution,  the  young  nation  found  in  the  South,  particu 
larly  in  Virginia,  some  of  its  best  soldiers  and  statesmen. 

The  English  were  the  most  numerous  nationality;  but 
there  were  also  many  French,  Germans,  Swiss,  and  Scotch- 
Irish. 

no.  Southern    occupations    and    commerce.  Virginia's 


C'oi/rfesj/,  United  States  National  Museum 

A  TOBACCO    ROLLER 

A  large  hogshead  was  filled  with  tobacco;  then  an  axle  was  run  through 
it,  a  frame  was  attached,  and  oxen  drew  it  from  the  field  to  the  plant 
er's  wharf 


io8  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

one  great  crop  was  tobacco;  but  in  the  Carolinas,  rice,  in 
digo,  tar,  and  turpentine  were  nearly  as  important,  and 
there  were  also  raised  much  corn,  cotton,  and  beef.  Com 
merce  was  carried  on  with  sister  colonies  to  the  north,  as 
well  as  with  the  West  Indies  and  England. 

The  fur  traders  of  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  Maryland  fre 
quently  ventured  with  their  packhorses  over  the  passes 
of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  and  down  into  the  valley  of 
the  Ohio  River  —  where  dwelt  some  of  the  most  warlike 
tribes. 

in.  New  England  society.  Even  the  poorest  New  Eng- 
lander  stood  stoutly  for  his  rights,  as  Englishmen  have  al 
ways  done,  but  the  wealthy  were  in  their  manner  quite  as 
aristocratic  as  any  Southern  gentleman.  At  church  the  rich 
sat  in  the  front  pews,  beside  the  colonial  officials  who  had 
been  sent  out  by  the  King.  Behind  them,  in  the  order  named, 
came  farmers,  merchants,  and  mechanics.1 

Practically  all  of  the  immigrants  who  came  to  New  Eng 
land  in  colonial  days  were  English,  so  that  for  a  century  and 
a  half  its  people  were  almost  wholly  of  that  one  race . 

112.  New  England  occupations  and  commerce.  As  farm 
ing  in  that  thin  soil  was  not  very  profitable,  there  were  in 
New  England  very  few  large  landed  estates.  Men  of  the 
highest  class  and  best  ability  held  public  office,  or  followed 
such  professions  as  the  law,  the  ministry,  and  medicine. 
There  also  grew  up  an  aristocratic  merchant  class,  who  took 
a  prominent  part  in  public  affairs  and  were  highly  respected 
by  everybody.  Indeed,  no  one  was  idle  in  the  North.  There 
were  but  few  slaves;  this  was  not  because  in  colonial  days 
New  Englanders  opposed  slavery,  for  they  did  not;  but 
because  they  did  not  think  it  profitable,  on  their  small 
farms  or  in  their  other  industries,  to  keep  servants  who  had 
to  be  driven  to  labor,  under  overseers. 

Unlike  the  people  of  the  South,  New  Englanders  made 
for  themselves,  chiefly  in  their  own  houses,  almost  all  the 

1  At  Harvard  College  the  students  were  seated  in  chapel  in  the  order  of  their 
social  rank. 


COLONIAL   LIFE  AND   CONDITIONS  IN  1750     109 

manufactured  goods  they  wanted,  and  mechanics,  millers, 
and  the  like  were  plentiful  in  every  town. 

Large  numbers  of  those  who  lived  along  the  coast  ob 
tained  a  good  share  of  their  living  from  the  sea,  as  fisher 
men  and  sailors.  Hundreds  of  stout  little  sailing  ships,  made 
and  owned  by  New  Englanders,  not  only  plied  up  and  down 
the  entire  American  coast,  but  made  voyages  to  Europe, 
Africa,  and  the  West  Indies.1  Outgoing  cargoes  consisted 
of  the  products  of  their  farms,  lumber  camps,  and  factories, 
which  were  bartered  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  the  products 
of  other  lands,  and  even  for  African  slaves. 

113.  Society  in  the  Middle  Colonies.  In  this  favored 
region  dwelt  many  nationalities,  Dutch,  French,  Germans, 
Swedes,  Finns,  Welsh,  and  Scotch-Irish,  as  well  as  English, 
thus  bringing  together  a  great  variety  of  speech,  customs, 
and  ways  of  thinking.    In  New  Jersey,  and  in  Philadelphia 
itself,  however,  the  people  were  chiefly  English.   Along  the 
Hudson  the  Dutch  patroons  held  trade  and  free  labor  in  high 
favor,  but  often  owned   large  numbers  of  both  black  and 
white  house  servants.    The  rich  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania 
were  rather  aristocratic  in  their  ideas;  but  on  the  whole  there 
was  more  democracy  in  that  province  than  either  in  New 
England  or  the  South. 

114.  Occupations  in  the  Middle  Colonies.  Farming  was 
of  course  the  chief  industry,  but  there  was  some  mining  of 
coal  and  iron,  and  a  few  small  factories  were  also  operated. 
As  in  the  South  there  grew  up  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
an  extensive  fur  trade  with  the  Indians  to  the  north  and  west. 
Ships  from  the  Middle  Colonies  traded  with  other  colonies 
both  north  and  south,  and  even  carried  cargoes  to  and  from 
the  West  Indies,  Madeira  Islands,  Portugal,  and  England. 

115.  Navigation  laws,  and  smuggling.  All  nations  having 
seacoasts  prefer  that  their  ocean  commerce  shall  be  carried 
on  in  vessels  built,  or  at  least  owned,  by  their  own  citizens; 
a  country  does  not  feel  independent  of  others,  in  case  of  war, 

1  Boston  alone  employed  six  hundred  ships  in  her  foreign  trade,  and  over  a 
thousand  in  coast  trade  and  the  fisheries. 


no  THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

unless  its  ships  are  its  own.  A  hundred  years  before  the 
voyage  of  Columbus,  England  had  laws  making  it  an  offense 
"to  ship  merchandise  out  of  or  into  the  realm"  except  in 
English  vessels.  At  first  the  colonists  were  not  compelled  to 
obey  these  laws.  But  it  was  soon  seen  that  enterprising 
Dutch  sailors  were  taking  a  large  part  of  the  colonial  trade 
in  their  ships,  and  making  a  great  deal  of  money  from  it. 
The  English  Government,  therefore,  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  passed  severe  laws  compelling  the 
colonists  to  help  build  up  English  commerce.  These  laws 
were  of  three  classes :  - 

(a)  Nobody  was  allowed  to  ship  any  goods  into,  or  from, 
or  between  the  colonies,  except  in  English-built  or  colonial- 
built  ships,  worked  by  English  or  colonial  crews. 

(b)  Certain  exports,  among  them  tobacco,  indigo,  copper, 
and  furs,  must  be  sent  only  to  England.  Some  exports,  such 
as  lumber,  provisions,  and  salt  fish,  were  allowed  to  go  to 
other  countries. 

(c)  An  American  merchant  was  not  permitted  to  import 
goods  directly  from  the  continent  of  Europe;  he  must  first 
have  them  shipped  to  London,  where  an  English  duty  was 
collected  on  them ;  there  they  were  reloaded  and  sent  on  to 
America,  where  still  another  duty  must  be  paid.  This  was  a 
very  slow  and  costly  method  of  importation. 

It  was  difficult,  however,  to  enforce  the  two  last-named 
regulations,  because  there  were  not  enough  officers  in 
America  to  search  every  ship  that  sailed  from  or  came  to  our 
shores,  to  see  if  the  laws  had  been  obeyed.  The  Northern 
Colonies,  especially,  paid  little  attention  to  such  laws,  and 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  smuggling  —  which  was  a  practice 
then  common  also  on  the  coasts  of  most  European  countries. 

116.  Domestic  manufactures.  In  addition  to  these  Navi 
gation  Acts,  as  they 'were  called,  there  were  laws  practically 
forbidding  American  factories  to  make  anything  that  might 
be  made  in  England.1 

1  Under  these  rules  iron  mined  in  America  might  be  made  here  into  crude 
bars  (or  "pigs"),  but  must  be  sent  to  England  to  be  manufactured  into  useful 


and 
spun 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND   CONDITIONS   IN  1750     in 

It  was  found  to  be  as  difficult  to  get  the  Americans  to 
obey  these  oppressive  manufacturing  laws  as  it  was  to  force 
the  Navigation  Acts  upon  them.  If  they  could  have  been 
enforced,  then  almost  all  manufacturing  and  business  inter 
ests  in  the  colonies  would  have  been  ruined.  As  it  was,  the 
laws  were  broken 
every  day  —  many 
small  colonial  in 
dustries  managed  to 
thrive,  and  a  great 
deal  of  profitable 
commerce  was  car 
ried  on  between  the 
colonies.  Farmers' 
wives  and  daughters 
dressed  flax 
carded  _  wool, 

and  Vam    and  WOVe 

"*  ' 

and  crudely  dyed 
"homespun"  cloth,  from  which  they  made  clothing  for 
the  family.  Mittens  and  socks  were  also  knitted  in  the 
homes,  and  sold  in  large  quantities  throughout  the  colonies. 
Many  straw  hats  and  bonnets  were  made,  but  cloth  or  felt 
hats  were  imported  from  England.  A  few  iron-working  mills 
were  to  be  found,  flour-  and  grist-mills  were  numerous,  ships 
were  built  in  every  colony,  and  carpenters,  ropemakers,  and 
sailmakers  found  abundant  employment. 

117.  Houses.  Up  to  the  opening  of  the  Revolution,  most 
of  the  smaller  country  houses  were  still  made  of  logs  — 
which  were  either  left'  round  or  roughly  squared  by  the  axe 

articles.  The  making  of  hats  in  America  was  declared  by  one  law  to  be  "an 
evil  practice."  It  was  forbidden  to  ship  either  wool  or  woolen  fabrics  outside 
of  the  colony  where  grown  and  made.  New  England  was  particularly  hurt  by 
the  "Sugar  Act,"  prohibiting  the  importation  into  the  colonies  of  any  non- 
English  sugar,  molasses,  or  rum  —  this  was  in  order  to  help  the  sugar  industry 
in  the  British  West  Indies. 

Similar  regulations  then  governed  the  colonies  of  all  other  European  coun 
tries.   In  fact,  the  English  acts  were  less  severe  than  those  of  France  or  Spain. 


Notice  the  spinntng  wneel,  the  flax-reel,  the  pewter  plates  on  the 
shelves,  the  lanterns  and  candles  on  the  mantle,  the  cooking 
utensils,  and  the  rifle  and  powderhorn 


ii2  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

or  adze.  After  sawmills  were  established  the  best  dwellings 
were  of  milled  lumber,  and,  so  far  as  lumber  can  imitate 
stone  and  brick,  patterned  after  the  country  houses  then 
fashionable  in  England  —  square,  with  stately  porches,  and 
often  with  columns  in  front.1 

In  the  earliest  times,  when  Indians  were  liable  to  attack 
the  settlers,  there  was  at  least  one  log  "blockhouse"  in  each 
village.  This  was  made  as  strong  as  possible,  with  openings 
in  the  sides  through  which  to  fire  at  the  enemy.  Sometimes 
a  group  of  blockhouses  would  be  surrounded  by  a  palisade 
of  logs  set  on  end,  with  heavy  gates;  this  made  a  strong  fort, 
into  which  the  people  of  the  neighborhood  might  retreat  in 
time  of  danger. 

118.  Furniture  and  interiors.  Most  of  the  furniture  used 
in  colonial  houses  was  homemade,  and  some  of  it  was  very 
crude;  but  well-to-do  people  imported  their  best  pieces  from 
England.   In  Dutch  farmhouses  great  rafters  showed  in  the 
ceilings,  the  big  fireplaces  were  framed  with  pictured  tiles, 
wooden  and  pewter  dishes  stood  in  racks  along  the  kitchen 
walls,  and  the  floors  were  spotless,  for  the  tidy  Dutch  house 
wives  scrubbed  and  sanded  them  daily.     Fireplaces  were 
long  the  only  means  of  heating  or  cooking;2  in  Northern 
homes  the  fireside  was  often,  in  winter,  an  uncomfortable 
place,  because  of  cold  drafts.    Homemade  tallow  candles, 
or  flickering  lamps  burning  whale  oil,  furnished  the  only 
artificial  light;  and  in  many  a  household  the  children  were 
obliged  to  read  and  study  at  night  solely  by  the  light  of  the 
fire,  which  must  have  been  bad  for  their  eyes. 

119.  Clothing.  In  the  early  years  of  every  colony,  and 
always  upon  the  outer  edges  of  the  settlements,  deerskins, 
tanned  as  soft  as  cloth,  were  much  used  for  men's  clothing. 
The  smock,  or  hunting-shirt,  which  reached  nearly  down 
to  the  knees,  was  tightly  belted  around  the  waist,  so  that 

1  In  the  North,  doors  and  windows  were  few;  but  in  the  South  there  were 
wide  halls  for  free  ventilation,  and  broad  porches  on  which  members  of  the 
household  could,  during  the  hottest  weather,  sit  in  the  shade. 

2  The  Germans  of  Pennsylvania  were  the  first  to  use  stoves  and  air-drums. 
In  1742  Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the  "Franklin  stove." 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND  CONDITIONS  IN  1750     113 

the  upper  part  might  be  used  for  carrying  provisions  and 
game,  like  a  large  pocket  or  sack.  The  moccasins  were 
often  stuffed  with  leaves  or  dry  moss,  to  protect  the  wear 
er's  feet  when  walking  on  rough  ground.1  In  more  thickly 
settled  parts,  "  homespun  "  was  commonly  worn.  But  the 
well-to-do,  if  English,  had  their  clothes  made  in  the  mother 
country,  according  to  the  latest  London  fashions  —  this 
meant  ruffled  shirts,  high  neckcloths,  shoes  with  large  and 
expensive  buckles,  tall  hats  of  beaver-skin,  and  knee- 
breeches,  cloaks,  and  coats  of  fine  cloth.  If  Dutch,  rich  and 
poor  were  of  ten  clad  in  the  quaint  old  costumes  of  Holland. 

120.  Churches.  In  New  England  everybody  was  obliged 
to  go  to  church,  and  at  times  this  was  also  true  of  most  of  the 
other  colonies.    But  the  churches  were  often  extremely  un 
comfortable  —  especially  in  New  England,  in  winter-time, 
for  they  were  without  heat;  the  sermon  was  apt  to  be  sev 
eral  hours  long,  the  high-sided  pews  were  uncushioned,  and 
the  people  frequently  came  to  stay  all  day,  attending  both 
morning  and  afternoon  services.   Many  brought  with  them 
little  fooMvarming  stoves,  heated  with  charcoal,  and  these 
served  also  to  warm  the  sleighs  in  which  they  rode.  The  min 
ister  spoke  from  a  high  pulpit;  in  front  of  him,  in  elevated 
pews,  sat  the  deacons  or  other  church  officers.  In  many  parts 
of  New  England,  if  a  person  fell  asleep  during  service,  he 
was  tapped  on  the  head  by  a  long  stick  in  the  hands  of  one 
of  these  watchful  officers,  and  made  to  wake  up  and  pay 
attention  to  the  preacher. 

121.  Education.   Many  Southern  planters  sent  their  boys 
to  be  educated  in  England,  and  others  kept  tutors  for  them 
at  their  homes.  For  the  poor  in  the  South  there  was  a  church 
school  in  every  parish,  kept  by  the  minister,  who  taught  the 
children  how  to  read  and  write.    In  Philadelphia  there  were 

1  Usually  the  outer  seams  of  the  trousers  and  of  the  smock,  and  the  top  of 
the  moccasins,  were  decorated  with  narrow  fringes  of  the  skin. 

The  settlers  borrowed  the  idea  of  the  moccasin  from  the  Indians;  to  whom 
also  they  were  indebted  for  the  useful  snowshoe,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  could 
travel  in  winter  through  the  deepest  snow.  The  ski  was  brought  to  America  at 
a  much  later  date,  by  our  Norwegian  settlers. 


IT4  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

public  schools  supported,  as  ours  are,  by  public  taxation; 
and  New  Jersey  had  county  schools  maintained  in  the 
same  way.  The  Dutch  established  similar  public  schools 
in  New  York;  but  after  the  English  came  into  power, 
they  were  not  so  well  managed.  In  New  England,  nearly 
every  town  had  a  good  public  school,  and  even  the  smallest 
places  made  some  provision  for  popular  education.  Colleges 
were  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  the  Middle  and  Northern  Colo 
nies  ;  but  in  the  South  only  Virginia  supported  such  an  insti 
tution.1 

Public  libraries  were  practically  unknown,  and  the  few 
books  or  pamphlets  printed  in  America  were  chiefly  on  reli 
gious  or  political  subjects,  and  not  entertaining  reading  for 
the  young.  Weekly  newspapers  were  published  in  all  the 
leading  towns,  but  they  were  very  small  affairs  compared 
with  the  great  dailies  of  our  time. 2 

122.  Amusements  and  sports.  The  people  of  New  Eng 
land  and  the  Middle  Colonies  enjoyed  many  simple  sports. 
Old  and  young  in  a  country  neighborhood  would  gather  in 
each  other's  houses,  and  help  at  paring  and  cutting  up  apples 
to  be  dried  for  later  use,  husking  corn,  spinning  wool,  and 
building,  or  "  raising,"  new  log  houses  or  barns.  These 
meetings  for  work  were  called  "  bees,"  and  were  the  occasion 
for  much  boisterous  fun.  Women  and  girls  held  "  bees  " 
for  making  quilts  or  helping  with  other  family  sewing. 

In  those  days  Indians  were  apt  to  make  trouble,  and  a 
good  share  of  the  food  was  wild  game ;  for  these  two  reasons, 
every  man  must  know  how  to  handle  his  rifle  or  musket 
with  skill.  This  weapon  was  generally  as  long  as  the  tallest 
frontiersman,  and  was  fired  by  means  of  a  flint  lock.  To 
encourage  marksmanship,  shooting-matches  were  frequently 
held,  at  which  prizes  were  offered.  Some  of  the  men  and 

1  Several  colleges  were  founded  in  colonial  days:   Harvard,  1636;  William 
and  Mary,  1693;  Yale,  1701;   University  of  Pennsylvania,  1740;  Princeton, 
1746;  Washington  and  Lee,  1749;  Columbia  (then  Kings),  1754;  Brown,  1764; 
Rutgers.  1766;  Dartmouth,  1769. 

2  The  first  public  journal  in  America  was  the  Boston  News  Letter,  begun  in 
1704.  The  early  papers  did  not  give  much  attention  to  local  news;  their  editors 
thought  that  only  events  at  a  distance  were  worth  mentioning. 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND   CONDITIONS  IN  1750     115 

boys  became  so  skillful  with  the  rifle  that  they  could  at  long 
distances  snuff  a  candle  without  extinguishing  the  flame, 
safely  put  a  bullet  hole  through  a  tin  cup  placed  on  another 
man's  head,  or  pierce  a  small  object  held  between  a  person's 
thumb  and  forefinger,  and  do  other  astonishing  and  often 
dangerous  feats  that  made  them  heroes  of  the  shooting- 
match.  It  is  no  wonder  that  during  the  Revolution  our 
colonists  were  declared  to  be  among  the  best  marksmen  in 
the  world.1 

In  the  cities  and  villages,  quiet  people  attended  balls, 
picnics,  out-of-door  tea-parties,  and  tavern-parties;  while  at 
horse-racing,  cricket,  club-ball,  somewhat  resembling  our 
baseball,  football,  and  such  field  sports,  there  gathered 
large  and  noisy  crowds.  Sleighing  and  skating  parties, 
dancing  parties,  and  singing  schools  were  popular  winter 
festivities  in  the  North,  as  was  also  story- telling  around 
the  enormous  fireplaces,  during  which  nuts  and  cider  were 
passed.  The  Dutch  were  extremely  fond  of  bowls,  a  game 
played  at  tavern  gardens  or  on  a  smooth  public  lawn,  or 
"  green."  2  In  the  South,  where  the  rich  planters  lived 
like  English  country  gentlemen,  fox  hunting  was  practiced, 
and  they  were  fond  of  "  house-parties,"  at  which  their  guests 
stayed  for  a  week  or  more.3 

123.  Roads,  travel,  and  taverns.  Roads  were  bad,  almost 
everywhere  in  the  colonies.4  In  the  South  wagons  were 

1  To  prepare  the  men  to  defend  their  homes  when  necessary,  there  were  held 
each  year  certain  "training  days,"  on  which  a  military  officer  taught  the  settlers 
how  to  march  and  act  together  under  orders.    "Training  days"  were  looked 
forward  to  by  both  men  and  boys  with  great  glee;  for  after  the  military  exercises 
on  the  town  "green,"  there  were  athletic  sports  open  to  everybody,  such  as 
running,  jumping,  boxing,  and  wrestling  for  prizes. 

2  Bowling  Green,  in  the  heart  of  lower  New  York,  is  where  the  Dutch  of  New 
Amsterdam  used  to  play  this  game  on  summer  nights. 

3  Many  Southern  planters  liked  to  spend  a  part  of  each  year,  when  the  legis 
latures  met,  at  the  capitals  of  their  colonies.    Their  entire  families  were  taken 
along,  with  the  household  servants,  and  the  season  went  rapidly  in  a  gay  round 
of  dancing,  card-playing,  formal  dinners,  and  governors'   receptions.      The 
gayest  of  these  capitals  was  Charleston,  where  many  of  the  Carolina  rice-planters 
lived  throughout  the  year. 

4  In  the  Middle  Colonies  and  New  England,  roads  began  to  be  improved  long 
before  the  Revolution.    The  best  were  called  "turnpikes,"  or  "pikes,"  and  on 
these  a  small  fee,  or  "  toll,"  was  collected  from  travelers,  to  help  meet  the  cost 
of  keeping  up  the  road.   There  were  also  many  toll-bridges. 


n6 


THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 


seldom  used,  for  nearly  everybody  rode  horseback  or  in 
boats.  There  were  few  bridges,  so  a  horseman  would  either 
ford  a  river  or  be  carried  over  in  a  boat  by  the  ferry-keeper, 
while  his  animal  swam  behind. 

The  taverns  south  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line  were  few 
and  poor,  for  only  now  and  then  was  a  traveler  seen,  and  he 
was  eagerly  welcomed  as  a  guest  at  the  plantations.  Inns 
were,  however,  quite  common  in  the  North,  and  those  of 
New  England  were  thought  to  be  good ;  but  on  much-used 
roads,  or  "  pikes,"  leading  to  and  from  the  largest  towns 
these  houses  of  "  entertainment  for  man  and  beast  "  were 

sometimes  so  crowded  at 
night  that  travelers  must  be 
thankful  if  allowed  to  lie  on 
rude  straw  mattresses  on  the 
floors  of  hallways  or  public 
rooms. 

We  read  of  a  stage-coach 
running  between  Boston 
and  the  Rhode  Island  towns 
as  early  as  1718,  and  after 
that  such  coaches  were  seen 
in  New  England  rather  fre 
quently.  But  it  was  over 
forty  years  later  than  this 
(1759)  before  the  first  line 
of  stages  ran  between  New 
York  and  Philadelphia;  these 
made  the  journey  in  about 
three  days.1 

124.  Crimes  and  punishments.  In  most  of  the  colonies 
punishments  were  made  as  public  as  possible.  Each  town 
kept  in  plain  sight  its  gallows  or  its  gibbet,  each  of  them 
chiefly  used  for  the  execution  of  pirates,  also  the  whipping- 

1  Not  until  late  in  colonial  days  were  many  private  carriages  kept  —  indeed, 
in  1761,  there  were  but  thirty-eight  in  Philadelphia,  although  Bostonians 
owned  many  more. 


To  the  PUBLIC. 
"THE  FLYING  MACHINE,   kept  by 

John  Mercereau,  at  the  New-Blazing-Star  Feny, 
near  New-York,  fcts  off  from  Powles  Hook  every  Mon 
day,  Wednefday,  and  Friday  Mornings,  for  Philadelphia, 
and  performs  the  Journey  in  a  Day  and  a  Half,  for  the 
Summer  Sea/bn,  till  the  ift  of  November,  from  that  Time 
to  go  twice  a  Week  ull  the  firft  of  May,  when  they 
again  perform  it  three  Times  a  Week.  When  the  Stages 
go  only  rwice  a  Week,  they  fet  off  Mondays  and  Thurf- 
day*  The  Waggons  in  Philadelphia  fet  out  from  the 
Sign  of  the  George,  in  Second-ftreet,  the  fame  Morning. 
The  Pa/Tengers  are  defired  to  crofs  the  Ferry  the  Evening 
before,  as  the  Stages  muft  fet  oft"  early  the  next  Morning. 
The  Price  for  each  PafTenger  is  Twenty  Stilling*,  Proc.  and 
Goods  ai  ufiuL  Paflengers  going  Part  of  the  Way  to  pay 
in  Proportion. 

As  the  Proprietor  has  made  fuch  Improvements  upon 
the  Machines,  one  of  which  is  in  Imitation  of  a  Coach, 
be  hopes  to  nxrit  the  Favour  of  the  Public k. 

JOHV  MIRCEREAU. 

AN    ADVERTISEMENT    FROM    THE 
NEW  YORK   GAZETTE,  1771 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND  CONDITIONS  IN  1750     117 

post  and  other  devices  for  correcting  evil-doers.1  The  in 
habitants  were  invited  to  witness  these  shocking  spectacles 
by  the  "  town  crier,"  an  officer  who  went  about  with  bell  or 
horn,  loudly  proclaiming  official  notices  and  all  manner  of 
news.  Great  crowds  would  collect  and  jeer  the  offenders, 
and  even  pelt  them  with  stones  and  other  missiles. 

Pirates  swarmed  in  great  numbers  along  the  colonial  coast, 
especially  in  Narragansett  Bay  and  on  the  sea-islands  off 
the  Carolinas.  They  were  the  terror  not  only  of  sailors, 
whom  they  murdered  to  get  their  ships  and  cargoes,  but  of 
many  small  seaside  towns,  which  they  sometimes  looted. 
After  the  Revolution,  however,  there  was  organized  a  na 
tional  coast  police,  and  then  these  murdering  freebooters 
ceased  to  be  a  serious  annoyance  to  American  shipping.2 

125.  "  In  good  old  colony  days."  We  can  best  understand 
how  people  lived  in  what  are  often  mistakenly  called  "  good 
old  colony  days,"  by  making  a  few  comparisons  between 
those  days  and  our  own. 

Dur  colonial  ancestors  had  no  daily  newspaper,  steam 
boat,  railroad,  electric  trolley  line,  telegraph,  cable,  tele 
phone,  bicycle,  motor  car,  elevator,  typewriter,  envelope, 
or  postcard  —  means  of  communication  which  we  consider 
absolutely  necessary  to  our  comfort.  There  were  then  no 
gas,  electric  light,  kerosene,  gasoline,  or  furnaces.  Factories 
and  mills  ran  only  by  water  or  wind  power,  for  steam  and 
electricity  had  not  yet  been  harnessed  for  the  service  of  man. 

1  For  vagrancy,  drunkenness,  or  small  thieving,  men  were  fastened  by  their 
feet  into  stocks,  set  up  in  the  market  place.    Scolding  women  were  placed  in  a 
ducking-stool,  and  half  drowned  in  river  or  pond.     Disorderly  men  and  wife- 
beaters  were  punished  at  the  whipping-post.    For  several  serious  offenses  there 
was  a  pillory,  a  frame  into  which  both  head  and  hands  were  fastened.  Some  kinds 
of  criminals  might  have  branded  into  their  faces  or  hands,  with  red-hot  irons, 
the  first  letter  of  the  name  of  their  crime;  or  they  might  be  compelled  to  wear 
a  large  letter  of  this  sort,  in  colored  cloth,  conspicuously  attached  to  their 
clothing. 

2  One  of  the  most  daring  of  the  sea-robbers  was  Captain  William  Kidd,  who 
for  several  years  made  miserable  the  life  of  our  American   sailors,  especially 
in  Northern  seas.   Another  infamous  pirate  was  Blackbeard.    He  used  to  hide 
in  the  many  deep  inlets  along  the  North  Carolina  shore,  and  like  a  great  spider 
jump  out  and  attack  every  passing  vessel  that  seemed  an  easy  prey.    At  last 
both  of  these  desperadoes  were  hunted  down  and  hanged. 


Ii8  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

Ether  and  chloroform  were  unknown,  and  surgical  opera 
tions  were  horrible  experiences.  Even  friction  matches  and 
hundreds  of  other  small  inventions  that  we  use  every  day, 
without  thinking  of  their  importance,  had  not  been  brought 

into  the  world.  Many  arti 
cles  of  food  now  seen  on  the 
poorest  tables  could  not 
then  be  had.  Only  the  rich 
could  buy  the  few  oranges 
or  bananas  occasionally  of 
fered  for  sale;  cauliflower, 
egg-plant,  and  tomatoes 
were  unknown,  and  even 
the  native  fruits,  apples, 
pears,  cherries,  raspberries, 
and  strawberries,  were  poor,  wizened  things  compared  with 
those  which  we  know.  During  hot  weather,  ice  was  a  lux 
ury  for  the  few,  for  there  were  no  ice  companies;  and  canned 
meats,  fruits,  and  vegetables  had  not  yet  been  heard  of. 

Mails  were  carried  between  the  chief  towns  by  postmen 
riding  ponies  that  could  travel  only  thirty  miles  a  day,  a  dis 
tance  now  made  by  our  fastest  mail  trains  in  half  an  hour. 
The  people  of  the  colonies  eagerly  read  in  their  little  weekly 
papers  news  from  Europe  that  was  three  and  four  months 
old.  Trips  across  the  Atlantic  were  made  in  small,  uncom 
fortable,  ill-smelling  sailing  ships,  and  it  took  a  good  part 
of  the  summer  to  make  the  voyage.  A  steerage  passenger 
in  the  smallest  and  poorest  of  our  ocean-going  steamships 
ordinarily  spends  no  more  than  twelve  days  in  passing  from 
ports  in  northern  Europe  to  America,  and  does  not  suffer  a 
twentieth  part  of  the  discomfort  felt  by  first-cabin  passen 
gers  a  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  years  ago, 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  imagine  how  it  would  feel  to  be 
without  the  hundreds  of  conveniences,  necessities,  and 
pleasures  that  come  into  our  daily  life.  But  our  colonial  fore 
fathers,  having  never  known  or  even  dreamed  of  these  things, 
of  course  did  not  miss  them.  Whether,  on  the  whole,  they 


COLONIAL  LIFE  AND   CONDITIONS  IN  1750     "9 

were  as  happy  as  we  of  this  generation,  it  is  impossible  for 
us  to  say.  Certain  it  is  that  their  lives  were  narrow  and 
often  -uncomfortable,  and  that  in  conquering  the  wilder 
ness  they  faced  obstacles  such  as  few  people  in  our  time 
have  ever  known.  The  simple  pleasures  that  came  to  them, 
however,  were  no  doubt  enjoyed  quite  as  heartily  as  any 
that  are  offered  to  us  in  such  wonderful  profusion. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  In  general,  what  conditions  in  the  Old  World  made  people  dissatisfied 
there,  and  why  was  America  attractive  to  them? 

2.  How  did  it  happen  that  England  contributed  the  largest  number  of 
colonists? 

3.  Why  was  there  little  or  no  manufacturing  in  the  South?    How  far  is 
this  true  now? 

4.  What  conditions  in  New  England  promoted  the  growth  of  seafaring? 

5.  VVas  manual  or  industrial  training  as  necessary  in  the  schools  in  colo 
nial  times  as  at  present?   Give  the  reasons  for  your  answer. 

6.  In  what  way  or  ways  was  necessary  work  in  colonial  days  turned  into 
amusement? 

7.  State  two  reasons  why  boys  learned  to  shoot  well.    Note   whether 
this  was  of  any  advantage  later. 

8.  How  did  the  absence  of  newspapers  and  magazines  affect  the  home  life 
of  the  people? 

9.  Trace  on  the  map  a  journey  in  colonial  times  from  Maine  to  Florida 
and  state  what  languages  one  would  have  heard  in  the  successive 
colonies  or  regions. 

10.  Name  the  different  means  of  travel  in  colonial  days?  Why  were  the 
roads  better  in  the  North  than  in  the  South? 

11.  How  did  it  come  about  that  the  Southern  plantation  owner  was  so 
hospitable? 

12.  Imagine  yourself  to  have  been  living  in  England  in  the  early  days  of 
the  colonies.  You  desired  to  emigrate  to  America.  Which  colony  would 
you  have  chosen  for  your  new  home,  and  why? 

13.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  your  town  or  city,  county  and  state? 

14.  To  what  country  or  countries  do  you  trace  your  ancestry? 

15.  Make  a  list  of  inventions  and  conveniences  common  with  us  but  un 
known  in  colonial  days. 

1 6.  In  what  respects  are  we  better  off  to-day  than  the  colonists  were? 
In  what  respects,  if  any,  were  they  better  off  than  we? 

17.  Prove,  if  you  can,  that  life  in  colonial  times  was  a  happy  one. 

1 8.  Make  at  home  a  small  chart  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States 
from  Maine  to  Florida.    Show  on  this  chart  (a)  each  of  the  thirteen 


120 


THE  PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 


19. 


colonies;  (6)  the  nativity  of  the  first  settlers  of  each  colony;  (c)  the 
motive  of  colonization  of  each ;  (d)  the  name  or  names  of  one  or  two  men 
associated  prominently  with  the  colonization  of  each ;  (e)  the  name  of 
some  interesting  event  or  events;  (/)  locate  the  largest  town  in  each. 
Complete  the  following  table  of  comparisons  of  the  three  groups  of 
colonies:  — 


North 

Middle 

South 

I.  Climate 

2.    Soil 

3.  Occupations 

4.  Commerce 

5.  Society 

6.  Educational 
facilities 

7.  General  character 
of  people 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Describe  a  log-rolling,  house-raising,  or  quilting-bee  on  the  frontier 
of  any  of  the  colonies.  Let  the  conversation  and  conduct  of  your  people 
show  plainly  whether  they  are  in  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  Pennsyl 
vania,  Georgia,  or  Virginia. 

2.  Imagine  yourself  in  a  stage-coach  riding  (in  1760)  on  the  route  between 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.    Relate  the  experiences  of  the  trip. 

3.  The  Crossing  by  Winston  Churchill  has  many  descriptions  of  colonial 
life.    Rewrite  the  one  which  seems  to  you  most  interesting. 


CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  Three  groups  of  colonies. 

2.  Southern  colonies:  (a)  Character  of  the  people,    (b)  Industries. 

3.  New  England  colonies:  (a)  Character  of  the  people,   (b)  Industries. 

4.  The  Middle  colonies:  (a)  Character  of  the  people.   (&)  Industries. 

5.  Conditions  common  to  all   three  groups:  (a)  Restrictions  on  trade 
and  manufacturing,    (b)  Home  manufactures,     (c)  Colonial   houses. 
(d)  Dress,    (e)  Worship.    (/)  Schools  and  colleges,     (g)  Recreations. 
(/O  Conditions  of  travel,  (i)  Punishments,  (j)  General  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  BY  ENGLAND 

126.  Wars  between  France  and  England.  Quite  early  in 
our  history  serious  disputes  began  between  the  French  and 
English  colonies  in  North  America,  as  to  the  boundaries 
that  separated  them.  Besides  small  conflicts  between  the 
colonists  themselves,  France  and  England  fought  four  wars 
over  these  and  other  matters,  lasting,  with  only  short  in 
tervals,  from  1689  to  1760,  a  period  of  seventy-one  years.1 
The  first  three  of  these  we  may  pass  over  briefly:  - 

(a)  King  William's  War  continued  from  1689  to  1697. 
War  parties  of  French  and  Indians  burned  the  New  York 
village  of  Schenectady  and  killed  most  of  its  inhabitants, 
besides  destroying  several  hamlets  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Massachusetts.2 

(b)  Queen  Anne's  War  was  fought  from  1702  to  1713. 
The  English  captured  and  kept  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  French 
massacred  the  inhabitants  of  Deerfield,  in  northwestern 
Massachusetts. 

(c)  King  George's  War  (1744-48)  is  chiefly  remembered 
for  the  remarkable  capture,  June  16,  1745,  by  untrained  but 
brave  and  persistent  New  England  militiamen,  of  the  strong 
French  fortress  of  Louisburg,  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton. 
This  famous  stronghold  not  only  guarded  both  the  Guli 
and  River  St.  Lawrence,  but  was  a  protection  to  French  and 
Indian  war  parties  which  for  many  years  had  attacked  and 

1  During  these  quarrels  between  France  and  England  the  fighting  was  not 
wholly  in  America;  it  also  went  on  in  Europe. 

2  At  Haverhill,  thirty-three  miles  north  of  Boston,  one  of  the  branches  of 
this  expedition  captured  several  prisoners,  among  them  Mrs.  Hannah  Dustin, 
who  managed,  one  night,  to  kill  nine  of  her  twelve  savage  captors,  and  returned 
home  in  safety. 


122 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


burned  English  settlements  in  northern  New  England.  At 
the  close  of  the  war,  the  English  Government,  to  the  great 
disappointment  of  the  New  Englanders,  good-naturedly 
gave  Louisburg  back  to  France.  However,  the  colonies  had 
been  taught  an  important  lesson  —  that  they  had  among 
them  the  best  sort  of  righting  material,  and  need  no  longer 
fear  the  warlike  French. 

The  French  and  Indian  War,  which  lasted  from  1754  to 
I76O,1  was  the  last  and  greatest  of  these  struggles  for  the 


THE  FRENCH  FRONTIER  IN  THE  NORTH 

control  of  our  continent.    It  was  so  important  in  its  results 
that  we  shall  consider  it  at  some  length. 

127.  French  claims.  Long  before  the  opening  of  this 
war,  the  King  of  France  was  claiming  ownership  of  not  only 
what  is  now  included  in  Canada,  but  also  the  northern 
half  of  New  England,  much  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  almost  all  of  our  continent  which  lies  west  of  the  Alle 
gheny  Mountains.  This  claim  was  based  on  the  fact  that 
Frenchmen  had  explored  a  large  part  of  that  vast  wilder 
ness  of  forests,  rivers,  and  lakes,  and  had  planted  almost 

1  The  fighting  began  in  America  in  1754,  but  war  was  not  officially  declared 
by  the  rulers  of  the  two  countries  until  the  next  year.  The  fighting  virtually 
ended  in  America  in  1760,  with  the  surrender  of  Montreal. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  123 

every  settlement  to  be  found  within  it ;  moreover,  nearly 
all  the  aborigines,  except  the  Iroquois,  welcomed  them  as 
warm  friends. 

128.  English  counter  claims.    Nevertheless,  the  English 
had  from  the  first  declared  that  they  alone  owned  the  land 
as  far  westward  as  the  Pacific  Ocean,  for  their  King  had 
given  it  to  them  in  the  colonial  charters.    Thus  far,  they 
said,  they  had  not  needed  the  region  lying  west  of  the  Alle 
gheny  Mountains,  or  the  "back  country,"  as  it  was  called; 
and  only  their  fur  traders  had  as  yet  ventured  into  it.    But 
now  the  time  had  arrived  when  the  Atlantic  slope  was  fill 
ing  up,  and  English  frontiersmen  wished  to  occupy  the  West 
with  farms.    Notice  was  therefore  served  upon  the  French 
to  depart  from  lands  lying  west  of  the  English  colonies. 
This  the  French  refused  to  do ;  whereupon  there  followed  the 
final  contest  between  France  and  England,  to  see  who  should 
be  masters  of  the  North  American  continent  —  for  now  it 
was  clearly  seen  that  both  nations  could  no.  longer  live  here 
in  peace,  side  by  side,  with  such  conflicting  claims. 

129.  Rivalry  in  the  Ohio  River  Valley.  The  principal 
French  settlements  were  the  towns  of  Quebec  and  Montreal, 
on  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  New  Orleans,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi,  —  places  over  two  thousand  miles  apart, 
measured  by  the  usual  lake  and  river  routes.    They  were 
connected  only  by  a  number  of  small  and  widely  separated 
fur-trade  posts  along  the  Great  Lakes  and   the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  Rivers. 

Unless  the  French  could  keep  control  of  the  Ohio  River, 
which  flows  through  the  heart  of  the  Western  country,  and 
was  the  principal  waterway  thither,  their  supplies  and  troops 
could  not  pass  between  Canada  and  Louisiana.  In  other 
words,  New  France  would  be  cut  in  two.  It  wTas  therefore 
with  great  alarm  that  French  officials  noticed  English  trad 
ers,  explorers,  and  land  hunters  coming  into  the  Ohio  Valley 
in  ever-increasing  numbers.  The  French  protested  bitterly 
against  this  English  "invasion,"  as  they  called  it, and  in  1749 
sent  a  small  military  expedition  down  the  river  to  warn 


124  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

the  Englishmen  to  leave  the  country,  which  of  course  they 
refused  to  do.1 

130.  The  French  ordered  off  by  Virginia.  In  the  very  year 
of  this  useless  French  expedition,  permission  was  given  to 
the  Ohio  Company,  of  which  two  of  George  Washington's 
brothers  were  members,  to  place  settlers  on  a  large  tract  of 
land  along  the  upper  waters  of  the  Ohio  River,  in  country 
claimed  by  Virginia.     In  order  to  protect  these  proposed 
settlers,  the  company  decided  to  build  a  fort  at  what  was 
known  as  the  Forks  of  the  Ohio,  where  the  Allegheny  and 
Monongahela  Rivers  unite  to  form  that  great  stream  —  the 
site  of  the  present  Pittsburg. 

The  French  were  of  course  alarmed  at  this  project,  and 
resolved  themselves  to  construct  a  fort  at  the  Forks  before 
the  English  arrived.  In  order,  however,  to  have  safe  com 
munication  with  Canada,  so  as  to  obtain  supplies,  they  first 
erected  several  small  forts  along  the  Allegheny  River, 
and  left  till  later  the  building  of  their  fort  at  the  Forks. 
Learning  of  this  activity  on  their  part  Governor  Dinwiddie 
of  Virginia  wrote  a  letter  ordering  them  to  depart  at  once 
from  what  he  declared  was  English  territory. 

131.  Washington's  winter  journey.   The  bearer  of  this 
message  was  Major  George  Washington,  a  young  surveyor 
who,  although  only  twenty-one  years  of  age,  was  adjutant- 
general  of  the  northern  division  of  the  Virginia  militia.    In 
his  many  surveying  expeditions  Washington,  a  fine-looking 
man,  over  six  feet  tall,  had  had  much  experience  with  Indians 
and  the  rude  life  of  the  wilderness,  and  was  well  known 
throughout  his  colony  as  a  clear-headed,  fearless  officer, 
with  unusual  skill  in  overcoming  difficulties. 

In  November,  1753,  Washington  and  his  half-dozen  com 
panions,  all  clad  in  leather  suits,  such  as  frontiersmen  then 
wore,  set  out  on  horseback  from  Virginia.  They  had  a  dreary 
and  dangerous  winter  journey  of  several  weeks,  over  snow- 

1  The  commander,  named  Celoron,  carried  with  him  a  number  of  small 
plates  of  lead,  on  which  was  engraved  a  statement  that  the.country  belonged  to 
the  French  King;  these  he  buried  at  the  mouths  of  tributary  streams.  Several 
of  them  were  afterwards  found  by  American  settlers. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE 


125 


clad  mountains,  through  thick  forests,  and  across  brimming 
streams  filled  with  floating  cakes  of  ice.  They  found  the 
French  at  a  stout  log  stockade  called  Fort  le  Bceuf ,  a  hun 
dred  and  twenty  miles  north  of  the  Forks.  The  com 
mandant  curtly  told  Washington  that  he  would  not  leave, 
and  the  latter  hastened  home  with  this  defiant  message. 

132.  Washington  defeated.  Virginia  promptly  replied  by 
sending  some  men  to  build  the  proposed  fort  at  the  Forks, 
and   soon  after 

this  Washington 
followed  with  a 
hundred  and  fif 
ty  militiamen  to 
form  a  garrison 
for  this  strong 
hold.  But  before 
his  arrival  the 
French  drove 
away  the  fort- 
builders,  and, 
completing  the 
work  for  them 
selves,  called  it 
Fort  Duquesne; 
they  also  attack 
ed  Washington 
when  he  had 
almost  reached  the  Forks,  and  defeated  him  at  Fort  Neces 
sity,  near  a  place  in  the  mountains  called  Great  Meadows. 
This  battle  was  the  opening  of  the  French  and  Indian  War. 

133.  The  Albany  plan  of  union.  At  this  time,  there  were 
only  85,000  people  in  New  France,  and  sixteen  times  this 
number  in  the  English  colonies.  The  despotic  officers  of  the 
French  could  move  them  quickly  from  place  to  place,  with 
out  asking  their  consent.     But  the  English  colonies  were 
jealous  of  each  other,  and  colonists  and  governors  were 
constantly  quarreling;  so  that  it  was  seldom  possible  to 


Painting  by  A.  Q  Heaton,  Union  League,  Philadelphia 

THE   FIRST   MISSION   OF   WASHINGTON 

The  scene  is  the  interior  of  Fort  le  Bceuf.  Washington  is  about  to  re 
turn  with  the  French  commander's  reply  to  the  English  governor  of 
Virginia.  His  companions  are  a  frontiersman,  as  guide,  and  a  Dutch 
soldier  as  interpreter 


126 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


get  the  people  to  agree  on  any  action  against  the  common 
enemy. 

Jn  order  to  remedy  this  unfortunate  condition  of  affairs, 
a  convention  of  delegates  from  the 
several  colonies  was  held  at  Albany 
in  June  and  July,  1754.  Prominent 
among  the  members  from  Pennsylva 
nia  was  Benjamin  Franklin,1  editor 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette.  In  this 
newspaper  he  had  printed  a  rudely 
drawn  picture  of  a  snake,  cut  into 
pieces,2  to  each  piece  being  given  the 
name  of  a  colony;  beneath  this  was 
the  significant  motto,  "  Unite  or  die." 
A  plan  of  union  which  he  drew  up  was 
adopted  by  the  convention.  But  the 
colonists  rejected  it,  as  not  being  sufficiently  democratic; 
and  the  King's  approval  could  not  be  obtained,  because  he 
thought  the  plan  merely  a  "  step 
ping-stone  to  the  independence  of 
the  colonies."  However,  it  set  wise 
men  to  thinking  and  talking  of  the 
benefits  of  such  a  union,  and  pre 
pared  them  for  the  one  that  was 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN 


•NC 


NY 


OR     DIE 


1  Franklin  was  born  in  Boston  in  1706.    As  a  youth  he  read  every  book  he 
could  buy  or  borrow,  and  at  an  early  age  began  to  write  newspaper  articles 
and  ballads.   When  seventeen  years  old  he  arrived  in  Philadelphia,  seeking 
employment  as  a  printer,  with  only  a  dollar  in  his  pocket.    Six  years  later  he 
owned  his  own  newspaper  and  printing-office  and  had  become  one  of  the  lead 
ing  citizens  of  Pennsylvania.    He  was  greatly  interested  in  scientific  studies, 
and  invented  many  useful  articles.    His  experiments  with  a  kite  showed  that 
lightning  is  an  electrical  discharge;  this  discovery  and  his  writings,  chief  among 
the  latter  being  Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  filled  with  wise  and  witty  sayings, 
made  him  as  well  known  in  Europe  as  in  America.    Franklin  was  conspicuous 
in  colonial  politics,  frequently  went  to  Europe  as  business  agent  for  the  colo 
nies,  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  in  1783 
helped  negotiate  at  Paris  our  treaty  of  peace  with  England.  His  simple  dress 
and  manners,  keen  wit  as  both  writer  and  speaker,  strong  common  sense,  and  sci 
entific  fame,  made  him  extremely  popular  in  Paris,  where  scores  of  artists  asked 
him  to  sit  for  busts,  portraits,  and  medals.    When  he  died  at  Philadelphia,  in 
1790,  he  was  one  of  the  most  famous  and  best  beloved  of  Americans. 

2  The  popular  belief  was,  that  if  the  parts  of  a  snake  that  had  been  cut  to 
pieces  were  brought  together  they  would  unite ;  otherwise  the  snake  would  die. 


THE   CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  127 

finally  formed  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  Revolutionary 
War. 

134.  Braddock's  defeat.  The  English  King,  George  1 1,  saw 
that  conditions  were  now  getting  serious  in  America,  and  in 
1755  sent  over  General  Edward  Braddock,  a  brave  and  skill 
ful  but  very  stubborn  officer,  to  help  the  colonists  capture 
the  Ohio  Valley  from  the  French.    He  had  with  him  several 
hundred  well-trained  soldiers,  and  was  also  accompanied 
into  the  wilderness  by  the  Virginia  troops,  headed  by  Wash 
ington,  and  a  few  friendly  Indians.     Washington  advised 
Braddock  to  order  his  soldiers  to  seek  shelter  behind  trees, 
when  attacked  by  the  savages,  just  as  the  Virginians  had 
learned  to  do.     But  Braddock  thought  it  disgraceful  for 
regular  soldiers  to  fight  under  cover.    The  expedition  was 
suddenly  attacked  by  a  small  party  of  French  and  Indians, 
in  a  bushy  ravine  not  far  from  Fort  Duquesne.   Braddock's 
men,  being  forbidden  by  the  general  to  conceal  themselves, 
huddled  in  frightened  masses  and  were  an  easy  target  for 
the  foe,  secreted  in  the  forest,  who  slaughtered  them  as 
though  they  were  a  flock  of  sheep.    Few  of  the  regulars  es 
caped,  and  they  owed  their  lives  to  the  coolness  and  bravery 
of  Washington  and   his  militiamen.    Four  bullets  passed 
through  Washington's  clothes  and  two  horses  were  shot 
under  him,  yet  he  was  everywhere  in  the  fight,  and  was  the 
hero  of  the  day. 1 

135.  Removal  of  the  Acadians.  Another  English  expedi 
tion  was  sent  during  the  same  year  to  Nova  Scotia,  or 
Acadia.  This  province,  formerly  belonging  to  France,  was 
now  owned  by  England;  but  the  French  farmers,  who  made 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  population,  were  rebellious  anr 
made  a  great  deal  of  trouble  for  English  officials.    The  Aca 
dians  were  easily  quieted,  and  seven  thousand  of  them  were 
exiled  to  various  settlements  along  the  coast,  all  the  way 
from  Massachusetts  to  Georgia. 2 

1  Daniel  Boone,  afterwards  a  famous  hunter  and  the  explorer  of  Kentucky, 
was  driving  the  horses  of  a  baggage  wagon;  but  he  cut  the  traces  that  held  his 
animals  and  rode  off  in  safety. 

2  Longfellow's  beautiful  poem,  Evangeline,  is  based  on  this  incident;  but  the 


128  THE   PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

136.  Guarding  the  Western  frontier.  The  ease  with  which 
Braddock  had  been  defeated  made  the  French  and  their 
Indian  allies  believe  that  if  diligent  they  might  drive  the 
English  entirely  out  of  the  Western  country.  Their  war  par 
ties  therefore  began  a  series  of  fierce  attacks  on  the  settle 
ments  along  the  mountainous  western  borders  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  —  a  frontier  line  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.    Hundreds  of  backwoodsmen  and 
their  wives  and  children  were  murdered,  or  taken  to  the  Indian 
villages  as  prisoners  to  be  tortured ;  others  were  driven  back 
to  the  east  of  the  mountains,  their  houses  burned,  and  their 
cattle  killed.  Fom  1755  to  the  end  of  the  war  the  story  of  the 
Western  frontiers  is  one  long  chapter  of  misery. 

The  man  who  undertook  the  difficul  t  and  dangerous  defense 
of  this  back  door  of  the  colonies,  and  prevented  the  savage 
enemy  from  forcing  their  way  into  the  small  settlements 
east  of  the  mountains,  was  George  Washington,  who  was  then 
but  twenty-four  years  of  age.  He  was,  however,  considered 
the  most  skillful  Indian  fighter  of  his  time,  and  was  greatly 
beloved  by  his  rude  but  brave  militiamen,  who  were  now 
fifteen  hundred  in  number.  Although  without  uniforms, 
nearly  all  of  them  wore  fringed  buckskin  suits,  and  coarse 
felt  hats  or  coonskin  caps,  with  the  tails  hanging  behind: 
they  carried  long,  homemade  flintlock  rifles,  and  from  their 
belts  hung  powderhorn,  scalping-knife,  and  tomahawk. 
Many  were  the  valiant  deeds  performed  by  Washington 
and  his  followers,  as  they  hurled  back  the  enemy  from  the 
rear  of  the  settlements.  But  for  them  the  war  might  have 
had  a  quite  different  ending.1 

137.  William  Pitt.  During   1756  and  1757  the  English 

poem  must  not  be  regarded  as  strictly  true  to  history.  France  had  in  1713 
ceded  Acadia  to  the  English,  yet  for  forty  years  its  people  stubbornly  reiused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  England ;  they  aided  her  enemy,  and  many  served 
in  the  French  army.  English  officers  decided  that  their  removal  was  a  necessary 
war  measure. 

1  Under  Washington's  direction  the  border  men  erected  numerous  log  forts, 
which  were  garrisoned  by  the  neighboring  settlers.  Washington  and  his  rudely 
clothed  riflemen  marched  quickly  hither  and  thither,  as  their  services  were 
needed  by  these  local  garrisons. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE     129 

generals  in  America  were  almost  always  unsuccessful  in  their 
expeditions,  and  it  began  to  look  as  though  the  French,  few 
in  number  but  plucky  fighters,  might  win  after  all.  But  in 
1758  affairs  began  to  mend,  chiefly  because  of  the  energy  of 
one  great-hearted,  honest,  and  patriotic  man,  William  Pitt, 
afterwards  Lord  Chatham,  who  had  recently  become  the 
chief  adviser  of  the  English  Government.  He  selected  the 
best  military  men  he  could  get, 
and  aroused  his  fellow  country 
men  to  make  a  last  and  desper 
ate  attempt  to  defeat  France, 
the  ancient  enemy  of  the  king 
dom.  New  and  fresh  troops,  well  < 
officered  and  equipped,  soon  be-  j 
gan  to  arrive  in  America  from 
the  mother  country;  and  naval  ? 
vessels  patrolled  the  Canadian 
coasts,  to  prevent  New  France 
from  receiving  supplies  from 
Europe. 

During  the  year  1758  Fort  Du-  VILLIAM  PITT 

quesne  was  captured  by  the  per 
sistent  English  and  renamed  Fort  Pitt  (afterwards  it  was 
called  Pittsburg) ;  this  opened  to  them  the  Ohio  Valley,  and 
gave  them  an  easy  pathway  into  the  Western  country.  In 
the  same  year,  after  a  brilliant  siege,  the  great  fortress  of 
Louisburg  once  more  fell  a  prize  to  the  English,  who  never 
again  let  it  slip  out  of  their  grasp. 

In  the  summer  of  1759  Fort  Niagara,  which  guarded  the 
Great  Lakes,  also  fell  to  the  English;  so  likewise  did  the 
forts  of  Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga  —  thus  giving  to 
them,  at  last,  control  of  the  long-coveted  route  to  Canada, 
by  way  of  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Champlain. 

138.  The  fall  of  Quebec.  Every  obstacle  lying  in  the  path 
of  an  English  attack  on  Montreal  and  Quebec,  the  two  prin 
cipal  towns  of  New  France,  had  now  been  removed. 

An  expedition  against  Quebec  was  at  once  organized, 


130 


THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 


A  FRENCH 
OFFICER 


A  FRENCH 
SOLDIER 


with  General  James  Wolfe  at  the  head  of  the  militacy  forces. 
He  was  only  thirty-two  years  of  age  —  a  quiet,  modest  gen 
tleman,  with  charming  manners  and  keen  intellect,  mingled 
with  rare  courage  and  enterprise. 
The  English  fleet  carried  less  than 
nine  thousand  sailors  and  soldiers, 
and  arrived  off  the  steep  cliff  of 
Quebec  in  the  last  week  of  June, 
1 759.  Next  to  Louisburg,  it  was  the 
strongest  fortress  in  America,  and 
had  a  garrison  of  about  sixteen 
thousand  whites  and  Indians,  un 
der  command  of  the  Marquis  de 
Montcalm,  who  bore  a  high  repu 
tation  in  the  French  army. 

All  summer  long  Wolfe  tried  to 
reach  the  top  of  the  cliff,  thinking 
he  might  win  if  he  could  meet  the  French  in  an  open  battle 
before  the  walls  of  their  great  fort.  But  they  bravely  re 
sisted  his  assaults.  Finally,  he  discovered  a  narrow  path  up 
the  steep  hillside,  made  by  goats ;  one  September  morning, 
before  daylight,  he  and  about  four  thousand  of  his  best  men 
secretly  climbed  up  this  path  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  a 
plateau  just  outside  the  walls.1 

In  the  terrible  battle  that  followed,  the  English  were  vic 
torious.  2     The  French  garrison  ran  up  the  white  flag,  and 

1  While  the  attacking  party  sat  in  rowboats  under  the  deep  shadow  of  the 
cliff,  waiting  for  the  signal  to  land,  Wolfe  recited  these  prophetic  lines  from 
Gray's  Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Churchyard,  saying,  "  I  would  rather  have 
written  those  lines  than  take  Quebec." 

"The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour; 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 

2  In  this  battle  both  Wolfe  and  Montcalm  were  killed.    While  Wolfe  was 
being  carried  to  the  rear,  shouts  of  victory  were  heard  on  the  field.    One  of  his 
officers  exclaimed,  "  See  them  run !"  "Who  run?  "eagerly  whispered  the  General. 
On  being  told  that  the  French  were  retreating,  he  cried,  "Now  God  be  praised, 
I  die  happy ! "  and  fell  dead  in  the  arms  of  his  companion.  About  the  same  time, 
Montcalm  also  died  from  a  severe  wound. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  131 

the  troops  of  England  triumphantly  marched  into  the  for 
tress. 

139.  The  end  of  New  France.    Montreal  was  easily  cap 
tured  by  the  English,  the  next  year,  and  soon  after  that  the 
remaining  French  forts  in  the  interior  of  the  continent  were 
also  handed  over  to  the  victors.  The  banner  of  England  now 
floated  from  practically  every  flagpole  east  of  the  Missis 
sippi  River.1 

The  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  not  signed  until  Febru 
ary,  1763,  in  Paris,  left  to  France  the  country  west  of  the 
Mississippi;  but  later  it  became 
known  that,  three  months  before 
this,  she  had  secretly  given  that 
enormous  tract,  all  of  which  was 
then  called  Louisiana,  to  her  ally, 
Spain.  Thus  the  old-time  claim  of 
the  English  colonists  that  their  ter 
ritory  reached  to  the  Pacific  was  no 
longer  in  force.2  Most  of  the  French 
in  Canada  remained  in  their  old 
homes  and  became  English  citizens. 

140.  Effect  of  the  war.  This  long 
and   terrible  contest  between  the 

English  and  the  French  was  of  great  importance  in  Ameri 
can  history. 

Unlike  the  English  colonists,  the  people  of  New  France 
had  no  trial  by  jury,  no  town  meetings,  no  representative 
assembly;  all  their  affairs  were  under  the  control  of  the 
despotic  King  of  France,  and  many  of  the  officials  whom 
he  sent  to  govern  Canada  were  harsh  and  dishonest.  The 
population  of  New  France  was  small,  and  a  third  of  her 
people  were  engaged  in  the  fur  trade,  which  caused  them 

1  France  kept  New  Orleans;  also  two  small  islands,  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon, 
south  of  Newfoundland,  on  which  her  fishermen  might  live. 

2  Another  important  result  of  the  war  was  Spain's  cession  of  Florida  to  Eng 
land.    The  latter  had  captured  Havana  not  long  before,  and  in  exchange  for 
this  Spain  reluctantly  yielded  up  Florida,  which  guarded  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
on  the  north. 


ENGLISH   SOLDIERS 


132 


THE  PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 


to  wander  far  from  home.   The  arts  of  farm-making,  town- 
building,  mining,  forestry,    manufacturing,  and  the  like, 

which  Englishmen  prac 
tice  with  such  energy 
as  soon  to  make  even 
j^-j  the  wilderness  of  a 
new  country  a  hive  of 
industry,  were  almost 
unknown  in  Canada, 
during  its  French  own 
ership. 

Had  the  French  been 
allowed  to  control  our 
continent  as  they 
wished,  the  English  col 
onists  would  have  been 


SIP  A  N  !  S  H 


NORTH   AMERICA   AFTER  THE  PEACE 
OF  1763 


able  to  dwell  only  upon  the  Atlantic  coast;  in  that  narrow 
space  they  could  never  have  built  up  a  great  nation.  The 
fighting  with  the  French  united  the  English  colonies,  and 
prepared  them  for  ultimate  union  in  defense  of  their  liber 
ties.  But  quite  as  important  was  the  fact  that  now  the 
English  race,  with  its  ideas  of  liberal  government,  was  to 
be  allowed  opportunity  to  expand  far  westward  into  the 
interior  of  the  North  American  continent;  and  to  establish 
here  a  home  for  such  of  those  people  from  other  lands  as 
wished  to  live  under  these  laws,  carry  out  these  ideas,  and 
help  make  our  country  a  still  greater  and  better  nation. 

141.  Pontiac's  War.  The  Indians 1  had  become  very  fond 
of  the  French,  who  wrere  content  to  allow  the  forests  to  re 
main  as  the  home  of  fur-bearing  animals.  They  foresaw 
in  the  coming  of  the  English,  however,  the  opening  of 
farms  and  the  building  of  towns,  which  would  drive  away 
the  game  and  crowd  out  the  natives.  Pontiac,  the  principal 
chief  of  the  Ottawa,  therefore  organized  among  the  red  men 
of  the  West  a  great  conspiracy  to  drive  out  these  new  mas 
ters.  But  although  the  Indians  captured  from  the  English 

1  Except,  of  course,  the  Iroquois. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  NEW  FRANCE  133 

many  forts  and  massacred  their  garrisons,  and  for  two  years 
(1763-65)  carried  on  a  terrible  war  against  the  backwoods 
men,  they  were  at  last  defeated,  and  remained  quiet  until 
near  the  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  On  a  map  of  the  United  States  indicate  (a)  the  territory  explored  by 
the  English;  (b)  by  the  French;  (c}  by  the  Spanish.   What  evidences  of 
their  occupations  of  those  regions  exist  to-day? 

2.  Discuss  the  question,  "Were  the  English  or  the  French  more  entitled 
to  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys?" 

3.  State  the  advantages  of  the  English  at  the  beginning  of  the  French 
'and  Indian  War;  of  the  French. 

4.  In  what  way  was  the  Appalachian  range  of  mountains  a  barrier  to  the 
western  extension  of  English  settlements?    In  what  way,  if  any,  was 
it  fortunate  that  these  mountains  existed?    Why  are  these  mountains 
no  longer  a  barrier? 

5.  Why  had  the  French  entered  the  country  so  far  to  the  north? 

6.  WThy  were  the  Indians  generally  warm  friends  of  the  French  and  ene 
mies  of  the  English? 

7.  Draw  a  line  on  a  map  of  North  America  connecting  the  French  forts 
from  Louisburg  to  New  Orleans  and  indicate  their  location. 

8.  Justify,  if  you  can,  the  removal  of  the  Acadians.   Choose  from  Long 
fellow's  Evangeline  some  lines  that  bring  out  pleasing  features  of  the 
country  and  of  the  home  life.    Find  some  lines  that  show  the  cruelty 
of  the  separation.    Mark  these  passages  and  read  them  in  the  class. 

9.  Show  why  the  capture  of  Quebec  was  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the 
world. 

10.  Name  two  important  acquisitions  of  territory  by  the  English  as  a 
result  of  the  French  and  Indian  Wrar. 

11.  Name  ten  towns  of  French  origin,  to  be  found  in  the  United  States. 

12.  Read  portions,  at  least,  of  Parkman's  Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 

13.  Important  dates:  — 

1759  —  Capture  of  Quebec  by  the  English. 
1763  —  Treaty  of  Peace. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  two  letters  from  the  commandant  at  Louisburg  to  the  King  of 
France.    Let  the  first  boast  of  the  impregnability  of  his  fortress,  and 
the  second  tell  of  its  capture  by  New  England  militiamen. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  are  an  Indian  in  Illinois  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Tell  a  white  captive  whether  you  like  the  French  or  the  English  better, 

and  why. 


134  THE  PERIOD   OF  COLONIZATION 

3.  One  of  Washington's  men  argues  with  one  of  Braddock's  men  about 
the  advisability  of  seeking  cover  when  fighting  the  red  men.  Dramatize 
the  scene. 

4.  A  little  maid  from  Grand  Pre  tells  a  Quaker  woman,  who  has  befriended 
her,  of  her  expulsion  from  her  old  home. 

CHAPTER  OUTLINE 

1.  English  and  French  claim  the  same  territory. 

2.  English  attempt  to  gain  control  of  the  Upper  Ohio  Valley. 

3.  The  Albany  plan  of  union. 

4.  Events  of  1755. 

5.  George  Washington,  commander  of  the  Western  frontier. 

6.  Capture  of  important  forts  by  the  English. 

7.  Fall  of  Quebec. 

8.  End  of  the  War  and  treaty  of  peace. 

9.  Results  of  the  War. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIOD  OF  COLONIZATION 

WHEN  this  period  begins,  men  had  found  out  that  the  two 
Americas  were  not  India,  but  a  great  continent  barring  the  way  to 
the  East,  and  they  had  searched  in  vain  for  a  waterway  through 
the  barrier.  On  the  north,  France  entrenched  herself  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  soon  began  to  grasp  the  Great  Lakes  and  rivers 
to  the  south  and  west.  On  the  south,  Spain  held  Mexico  and  Peru 
with  outposts  in  New  Mexico,  Florida,  and  the  West  Indies. 
Raleigh's  colonizing  schemes  had  failed,  and  the  great  English- 
speaking  race,  that  later  was  to  make  North  America  its  own,  had 
not  a  single  foothold  upon  it.  From  Canada  to  Florida  was  un 
broken  wilderness,  inhabited  only  by  roving  red  men. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  two  wedges 
of  English  settlement  had  begun  to  enter  the  wilderness  —  one  in 
Virginia  in  1607,  another  in  Massachusetts  in  1620.  By  the  close 
of  the  century,  all  the  English  colonies  except  Georgia  had  been 
founded.  The  only  important  settlement  not  English  was  the 
Dutch  province  in  eastern  New  York,  and  of  this  England  took 
forcible  possession  in  1664.  Many  of  these  colonies,  especially 
those  of  New  England,  and  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  were 
founded  by  men  seeking  religious  liberty;  other  settlers  were 
"gentlemen  adventurers"  who  came  to  advance  their  fortunes; 
and  still  another  class  was  composed  of  the  poor,  the  debtors,  and 
the  petty  criminals  whose  labor  was  sold  for  a  term  of  years. 

In  the  South,  with  its  warm  climate  and  fertile  soil,  where  agri- 


REVIEW 

culture  became  the  principal  source  of  wealth,  the  land  was  in 
large  estates,  owned  by  rich  men  and  cultivated  by  negro  slaves. 
In  the  North,  with  its  severe  climate  arid  less  productive  soil, 
farming,  on  a  much  smaller  scale  than  in  the  South,  was  supple 
mented  by  manufactures,  shipbuilding,  fisheries,  whalmg,  and 
commerce.  In  the  South,  because  of  negro  slavery,  it  was  by  many 
people  considered  hardly  respectable  for  a  white  man  to  work  with 
his  hands;  in  the  North,  all'labor  was  considered  honorable. 

During  this  period  the  colonies  had  little  trouble  with  their 
Spanish  neighbors  on  the  south,  but  the  contest  with  the  French 
and  their  Indian  allies  was  long  and  severe.  The  victory  of  Wolfe 
on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  in  1759  settled  the  fate  of  the  continent 
and  is  reckoned  among  those  few  decisive  battles  of  the  world 
that  have  changed  the  course  of  history. 

At  the  close  of  this  period  the  colonies  had  begun  to  accumu 
late  wealth  in  farms,  commerce,  and  manufactures.  They  had  es 
tablished  colleges  and  made  considerable  provision  for  public 
schools.  They  were  good  shipbuilders  and  skillful  sailors.  They 
were  a  nation  of  sharpshooters,  accustomed  to  forest  warfare, 
and  not  without  experience  against  regular  troops.  They  were 
trained  in  self-government,  prompt  to  resent  interference  with 
their  rights,  and  had  already  learned  to  act  together  against  a 
common  enemy.  Though  they  had  sometimes  been  forced  to  op 
pose  the  will  of  their  colonial  governors,  they  were  still  loyal  to 
England,  and  proud  to  be  called  Englishmen. 

RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History ^  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  I, 
parts  3-5 ;  vol.  II,  parts  4,  5.  Thwaites's  Colonies,  chaps,  in-x,  xii.  Fiske's 
United  States,  pp.  59-176.  Channing's  Student's  United  States,  chap.  in. 
Sparks's  Expansion  of  American  People,  pp.  24-56.  Judson's  Growth  of 
American  Nation,  chap.  iv.  Low's  American  People,  chaps,  v-ix.  Bancroft's 
United  States  (edition  of  1891),  vol.  I,  chaps,  vi-vm,  x,  xn.  Tyler's  Eng 
land  in  America,  chaps.  Jtdy.  Fiske's  Old  Virginia,  vol.  I,  chaps,  n-vii; 
vol.  n,  chaps,  x-xin,  xvn ;  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies,  vol.  I,  chaps.  IV,  IX, 
xi;  vol.  n,  chaps,  xii,  xv,  xvi.  Pryor's  Birth  of  a  Nation,  chaps.  I,  n,  v,  vi, 
x-xm,  xxi.  E.-Eggleston's  Beginners  of  a  Nation,  part  I,  chaps,  n,  in; 
part  2,  chaps.  H-IV;  part  3,  chaps,  i,  u.  Griffis's  Story  of  New  Netherland, 
chaps,  n-iv,  vii,  xii,  xv-xix.  Parkman's  Struggle  for  a  Continent,  pp.  301- 
450.  Thwaites's  France  in  America,  chaps,  ix-xvi.  G.  C.  Eggleston's  Life 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  chaps,  iv,  vi-ix,  xm,  xix-xxi.  Bogart's  Econo 
mic  History,  chaps,  iv-vi.  Goodwin's  Colonial  Cavalier.  Fisher's  Men, Women, 
and  Manners,  vol.  I,  chaps,  i-m;  vol.  n,  chaps,  vm,  ix.  Singleton's  Dutch 


THE   PERIOD   OF   COLONIZATION 

.New  York,  chaps,  i-viu,  xn,  XIH.  '  Pepper's  Maids  and  Matrons  of  New 
France,  pp.  220-286.  Warner's  Captain  John  Smith.  Twitchell's  John 
Winthrop.  Hodge's  William  Penn.  Cooper's  James  Oglethorpe.  Casgrain's 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book  of  American  History,  pp.  33-122; 
Colonial  Children,  pp.  133-233.  Elson's  Guide  to  American  History,  chaps. 
iv-vi.  Guerber's  Story  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies.  Tap^an's  Our  Country's 
Story,  chap,  ix;  Letters  from  Colonial  Children;  American  Hero  Stories,  pp. 
59-96.  Hawthorne's  Grandfather  s  Chair,  parts  I,  2.  Wright's  Children's 
Stories  in  American  History.  Griffis's  Romance  of  American  Colonization. 
Brooks's  Century  Book  of  American  Colonies;  Stories  of  Old  Bay  State.  Cof 
fin's  Old  Times  in  the  Colonies.  Drake's  Making  of  Virginia  and  Middle 
Colonies;  Making  of  New  England.  Earle's  Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days; 
Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days.  Stone  and  Fickett's  Every-day  Life  in  the  Colo 
nies.  G.  Brooks's  Dames  and  Daughters  of  Colonial  Days.  Kelly's  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  Eggleston's  Pocahontas.  Johnson's  Myles  Standish.  Ab 
bott's  King  Philip.  • 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Barr's  Bow  of  Orange  Ribbon.  Bynner's  Agnes  Sur~ 
riage.  Doyle's  Refugees.  Hawthorne's  Scarlet  Letter.  Johnston's  To  Have 
and  to  Hold;  Audrey.  McLennan's  Span  o'  Life.  Parker's  Seats  of  the 
Mighty.  Wilkins's  Heart's  Highway. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Austin's  Standish  of  Standish;  Betty  Alden.  Dix's  Soldier 
Rigdale.  Goodwin's  White  Aprons.  Henty's  With  Wolfe  in  Canada.  Mun- 
roe's  At  War  with  Pontiac.  Pyle's  Jack  Ballister's  Fortunes. 

POETRY 

Butterworth's  Thanksgiving  in  Boston  Harbor.  Hemans's  Landing  of  the 
Pilgrims.  Longfellow's  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish;  Evangeline.  Sted- 
jnan's  Peter  Stuyvesant's  Call.  Thackeray's  Pocahontas.  Whittier's  John 
•Underhill;  The  Kings  Missive. 


THE   REVOLUTION 
CHAPTER   XIII 

THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION 

142.  The  two  points  of  view:  British  and  Colonial.  France 
and  Great  Britain  had  made  their  peace.    Although  heavily 
indebted  from  the  long  and  costly  war,  the  latter  must  try 
to  hold  her  territory,  now  more  than  double  the  size  of  the 
old  coast  colonies,  not  only  against  Indian  enemies,   but 
against  Spain  as  well.    The  Americans  were  prospering;  so 
the   Government   in   London   decided   that   hereafter  they 
must  pay  a  larger  share  than  before  of  the  cost  of  their  own 
management  and  defense.    Accordingly  Parliament  adopted 
new  plans  of  colonial  taxation,  without  stopping  to  ask  the 
consent  of  the  colonial  assemblies.    This  arbitrary  conduct, 
together  with  the  harsh  methods  by  which  King  George  III 
.and  his  officers  sought  to  enforce  these  taxes,  aroused  the 
anger  of  the  Americans  and  finally  led  to  the  Revolution. 

In  coming  to  America  the  British  colonists  did  not  give 
up  the  principle  upon  which  Englishmen  had  for  genera 
tions  insisted  —  that  they  be  allowed  to  manage  their  own 
local  affairs,  and  pay  only  such  taxes  as  were  voted  by  their 
representatives  in  Parliament.  All  through  the  colonial 
period  most  of  the  quarrels  between  the  assemblies  and  the 
royal  governors  had  their  beginning  in  attempts  of  the  latter 
to  interfere  in  local  matters  or  to  levy  taxes  without  the  con 
sent  of  the  assemblies. 

143.  The  King  threatens  the  Americans.    King  George 
was    an    obstinate    and    narrow-minded    person.     He    had 
formed  a  hatred  for  his  American  subjects  because  of  their 
u  disobedience  and  lawlessness."    He  was  eager  to  teach 


136 


THE    REVOLUTION 


them  a  lesson,  and  announced  that  any  opposition  to  the 
new  taxes  would  promptly  be  crushed. 

William  Pitt,  later  Lord  Chatham,  and  Edmund  Burke, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  British  orators,  warned  his  Majesty, 

from  their  seats  in  Parliament, 
that  harshness  was  neither  a 
proper  nor  a  safe   method  of 
|f\     managing  dissatisfied  English- 
\  men,   whether  at   home  or  in 
I  \  the  distant  colonies ;  but  words 
/^flfe'  °^    wisdom     n^e     these    were 

thrown   away   on   a   man   like 
King  George.1 

144.  Methods  of  coercion. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
the  King  and  his  Parliament 
adopted  four  forcible  meas 
ures  :  — 

(a)  The  old  Navigation  and 
Manufacturing  Acts  (p.  109) 
were  ordered  to  be  strictly  en 
forced. 

(b)  A  standing  army  of  ten  thousand  soldiers  was  sent  to 
America,  to  aid  in  this  enforcement. 

(c)  The  Stamp  Act  was  passed,  to  raise  money  for  the 
support  of  this  army.  This  was  a  new  and  direct  tax  on  the 
people  of  the  colonies. 

(d)  Additional  duties  were  laid  on  imported  articles  com 
monly  used  in  the  colonies. 

145.  The  Navigation  and  Manufacturing  Acts.  The 
Americans  had  never  paid  much  attention  to  these  arbi 
trary  laws.  But  the  King  insisted  that  they  must  hereafter 
be  strictly  obeyed.  He  sent  over  special  officers  in  warships 
to  enforce  these  laws.  The  insolent  and  high-handed  way 
in  which  they  attempted  to  do  this,  aroused  intense  indigna- 


KIXG   GEORGE   III 


1  Pitt's  eldest  son  was  in  the  army;  but  his  father  withdrew  him,  fearing  that 
he  might  be  called  on  to  serve  against  the  colonies. 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION          137 

tion  among  the  people.  Under  the  authority  of  general  war 
rants,  known  as  "  writs  of  assistance,"  the  King's  repre 
sentatives  seized  vessels  and  cargoes,  and  broke  into  stores, 
warehouses,  and  private  dwellings,  pretending  to  search  for 
smuggled  goods;  and  suspected  citizens  were  dragged  to 
prison  and  either  punished  by  the  King's  judges  on  very 
slight  evidence  or  kept  in  jail  for  a  long  time  without  trial. 
Such  proceedings  violated  several  important  principles  of 
English  liberty.  One  of  these  was  that  private  citizens  should 
not  have  their  houses  invaded  or  their  property  seized  ex 
cept  on  special  warrants,  to  be  issued  only  when  this  was 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  public  good;  another  was  that 
an  accused  person  should  be  given  a  speedy  trial  by  a  jury 
of  his  fellow  citizens. 

James  Otis,  an  able  Boston  lawyer,  made  a  thrilling 
speech  upholding  the  rights  of  the  colonists.  Such  abuse  of 
power  had  in  the  motherland,  he  said,  "  cost  one  king  of 
England  his  head,  and  another  his  throne."  1  But  the  King's 
officers  paid  little  attention  to  such  criticism. 

146.  The  standing  army.  The  excuse  for  sending  over  the 
soldiers  was  that  the  Americans  on   the  Western  frontiers 
needed  the  protection  of  experienced  regular  troops  against 
the  Indians.   The  colonists,  however,  believed  that  this  army 
was  sent  really  to  keep  them  in  subjection. 

147.  The  Stamp  Act.    At  least  a  part  of  the  expense  of 
feeding,   equipping,   and  paying  these  unwel 
come  soldiers  was  to  be  raised  under  the  Stamp 

Act  which  was  passed  in  the  spring  of  1765. 
By  this  Act  every  newspaper,  pamphlet,  ad 
vertisement,  bill  of  merchandise,  and  business 
or  legal  document,  together  with  every  permit 
of  any  kind,  must  bear  a  government  stamp.       A  STAMPS 

1  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts  heard  this  speech,  and  said  that  "then  and 
there  the  child  Independence  was  born." 

2  The  black  patch  is  a  fastener  of  tin  foil  inserted  through  slits  in  the  stamp 
and  the  paper  to  which  it  was  attached.     The  stamps  were  not  printed  on 
gummed  paper,  like  our  postage  stamps,  but  wrere  impressed  by  means  of  a  seal. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  being  on  separate  paper,  they  were  impressed  upon  the 


138  THE    REVOLUTION 

These  stamps  cost  all  the  way  from  one  cent  to  fifty  dol 
lars,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  paper  to  which 
they  were  affixed. 

The  colonists  at  once  protested  that,  as  they  were  not 
represented  in  the  British  Parliament,  that  body  had  no 
right  to  oblige  them,  against  their  will,  to  pay  taxes  of  any 
kind  whatsoever.  To  the  King  and  his  friends  this  seemed 
most  stubborn  and  unreasonable  conduct.  They  forgot  that 
the  colonists  were  simply  insisting  on  what  tens  of  thou 
sands  of  Englishmen,  both  at  home  and  in  the  colonies,  had 
long  cherished  as  their  right  —  to  pay  no  taxes  except  such 
as  were  approved  by  their  own  representatives. 

148.  Fighting  the  Stamp  Act.  On  the  day  the  Stamp  Act 
went  into  effect  the  bells  in  many  colonial  towns  were  tolled 
as  if  for  a  funeral,  and  public  meetings  were  held  to  protest 
against  what  was  called  "  the  death  of  liberty."  Merchants 
pledged  themselves  to  import  no  more  goods  from  the  old 
country  until  the  act  was  repealed.  Large  numbers  of  the 
men  formed  clubs  called  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  l  whose  members 
promised  to  buy  no  more  British-made  articles.  Even  the 
women  organized  similar  clubs,  named  "  Daughters  of 
Liberty,"  and  met  each  week  in  "  Spinning  Societies,"  to 
weave  homespun  cloth  for  men's  and  boys'  wear. 

The  various  colonial  assemblies  passed  indignant  resolu 
tions  against  the  Stamp  Act.  The  most  memorable  scene 
was  in  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,  where  Patrick 
Henry,  an  eloquent  young  lawyer,  made  himself  famous  for 
all  time  by  a  fiery  speech,  in  which  he  cried:  "  Tarquinand 
Caesar  had  each  his  Brutus;  Charles  I  his  Cromwell,  and 
George  III  '  -  "  Treason!  treason!  "  shouted  the  presiding 
officer  in  an  effort  to  stop  him  -  "  may  profit  by  their  ex 
ample,"  concluded  Henry  deliberately.  "If  this  be  treason, 
make  the  most  of  it!  "  The  news  of  this  speech  quickly 
spread  throughout  the  colonies,  and  everywhere  aroused 
the  spirit  of  patriotism  among  the  people. 

1  This  name  came  from  a  phrase  in  a  ringing^  speech  opposing  the  Stamp 
Act  made  by  an  Englishman,  Colonel  Isaac  Barre  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION          139 

In  October,  1765,  there  was  held  in  New  York  a  con 
vention    called  the  "  Stamp  Act  Congress,"  at  which  nine 
of  the  thirteen  colonies  were  represented.  This  body  declared 
that  the  Americans  were  loyal  to 
the  King,  but  would  allow  none  but 
their  own    representatives   to   tax 
them.     It  instructed  Franklin,  who 
was  then  in  London,  to  explain  to 
the  Government  that  the  Ameri 
cans  were  firm  and  united  on  this 
question. 

A  great  debate  arose  in  Parlia 
ment  over  the  rights  of  the  Ameri 
cans,  during  which  Pitt  exultingly 
cried:  "  I  rejoice  that  America  has 

J  r'AlKILK    rl£,NKY 

resisted!   Three  millions  of  people 

so  dead  to  all  the  feelings  of  liberty  as  voluntarily  to  sub 
mit  to  be  made  slaves  would  have  been  fit  instruments  to 
make  slaves  of  all  the  rest." 

However,  the  Parliamentary  majority  did  not  heed  Pitt's 
remonstrances.  But  they  did  listen  to  the  London  merchants, 
who  were  wild  with  dismay  over  the  disaster  which  threat 
ened  their  once  profitable  business  in  America,  for  at  this 
time  a  third  of  Great  Britain's  enormous  trade  was  with  her 
colonies;  these  men  clamored  loudly  against  so  annoying 
the  Americans  that  they  would  no  longer  buy  British  goods. 
In  order  to  please  the  merchants  the  Government  now  re 
pealed  the  Stamp  Act.  In  the  American  towns  this  victory 
was  celebrated  with  noisy  glee,  for  the  colonists  had  by  this 
time  learned  what  strong  and  united  action  could  do;  they 
also  were  encouraged  to  find  that  their  cause  had  many 
powerful  friends  in  England. 

149.  Taxation  and  representation  in  England.  The  histor 
ian1  Fiske  has  so  clear  and  interesting  an  account  of  the  situa 
tion  and  sentiments  of  the  English  people  at  this  time,  that 
we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  a  few  of  his  paragraphs  :- 

1  In  A  History  of  the  United  States  for  Schools. 


140  THE    REVOLUTION 

"The  people  of  London  were  delighted  at  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act,  and  it  seemed  .as  if  all  the  trouble  were  at  an  end.  So 
it  might  have  been,  but  for  that  agreement  of  opinion  between 
the  Americans  and  Pitt.  In  getting  such  a  powerful  friend  in 
Pitt,  the  Americans  found  an  implacable  enemy  in  the  new  king, 
George  III,  who  had  come  to  the  throne  in  1760,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two.1  There  was  then  going  on  in  England  a  hot  dis 
pute  over  this  very  same  business  of  '  no  taxation  without  rep 
resentation,'  and  it  wTas  a  dispute  in  which  the  youthful  King 
felt  bound  to  oppose  Pitt  to  the  bitter  end.  Let  us  see  just  what 
the  dispute  was. 

"In  such  a  body  as  the  British  House  of  Commons  or  the 
American  House  of  Representatives,  the  different  parts  of  the 
country  are  represented  according  to  population.  For  example, 
to-day  New  York,  with  over  9,000,000  inhabitants,  has  forty-three 
representatives  in  Congress,  wrhile  Arizona,  with  about  200,000 
inhabitants,  has  only  one  representative.  This  is  a  fair  proportion ; 
but  as  population  increases  faster  in  some  places  than  in  others, 
the  same  proportion  is  liable  to  become  unfair.  To  keep  it  fair  it 
must  now  and  then  be  changed.  In  the  United  States,  every  tenth 
year,  after  a  new  census  has  been  taken,  we  have  the  seats  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  freshly  distributed  among  the  States,  so 
that  the  representation  is  always  kept  pretty  fair.  .  .  . 

"Now  in  England,  when  George  III  came  to  the  throne,  there 
had  been  nothing  like  a  redistribution  of  seats  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  more  than  two  hundred  years.  During  that  time, 
some  old  towns  and  districts  had  dwindled  in  population,  and 

1  Early  in  his  reign,  the  King  alienated  the  sympathy  and  support  of  the 
people  of  England  by  his  folly  and  malicious  willfulness.  Here  are  three  strik 
ing  instances  of  how  he  did  this:  — 

(1)  Pitt,  the  stanch  friend  of  the  American  colonies,  and  the  man  whom,  as 
Secretary  of  State,  the  English  people  had  trusted  and  sustained,  was  driven 
from  office  in  1761.    During  the  next  five  years  he  led,  in  Parliament,  the  op 
position  to  the  King.    (In  1766  he  was  again  made  a  member  of  the  Cabinet. 
Ill  health  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  bear  the  strain  of  leadership;  and  his 
ideas  were  completely  thrust  aside  by  his  colleagues.) 

(2)  The  government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  "King's  Friends,"  — 
ministers  who,  though  odious  to  the  people,  retained  office  merely  because  they 
proved  themselves  so  pliant  to  the  King's  will. 

(3)  The  King  made  a  malignant  attack  upon  the  freedom  of  the  press,  ar 
represented  by  one  John  Wilkes,  a  newspaper  publisher  who  had  dared  criti 
cize  the  King,  and  who  was  a  member  of  Parliament.   Wilkes  was  expelled  fron 
Parliament  by  order  of  King  George  (1764)  and  fled  to  France.    Later  he  re 
turned  to  England,  appealed  to  the  people  -for  support,  and  was  reflected  to 
Parliament.  He  was  again  expelled  and  thrown  into  prison.   A  third  time  he  was 
reflected  to  Parliament,  whereupon  the  King's  party  placed  the  defeated  can 
didate  in  Wilkes's  seat.    After  much  excitement  and  riotous  tumult,  Wilkes 
finally  triumphed,  and  took  his  seat  in  Parliament  in  1774. 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION          141 

some  great  cities  had  lately  grown  up,  such  as  Manchester  and 
Sheffield.  These  cities  had  no  representatives  in  Parliament, 
which  was  as  absurd  and  unfair  as  it  would  be  for  a  great  state 
like  Missouri  to  have  no  representatives  in  Congress.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  little  towns  and  thinly  peopled  districts  kept  on 
having  just  as  many  representatives  as  ever.  .  .  . 

"The  result  was  that  people  who  could  not  get  representa 
tion  in  Parliament  by  fair  means  got  it  by  foul  means.  Seats  for 
the  little  towns  and  districts  were  simply  bought  and  sold,  and 
such  practices  made  political  life  at  that  time  very  corrupt.  Par 
liament  did  not  truly  represent  the  people  of  Great  Britain;  it 
represented  the  group  of  powerful  persons  that  could  buy  up 
enough  seats  to  control  a  majority  of  votes. 

"  During  the  reigns  of  the  first  two  Georges,  this  group  of  power 
ful  persons  consisted  of  the  leaders  of  the  party  of  Old  Whigs. 
They  ruled  England,  and  reduced  the  power  of  the  crown  to  in 
significance.  Their  rule  was  mostly  wise  and  good,  but  it  was 
partly  based  on  bribery  and  corruption.  Among  their  leaders 
were  such  great  men  as  Charles  James  Fox  and  Edmund  Burke. 

"When  George  III  became  king,  he  was  determined  to  be  a 
real  king,  to  set  the  Old  Whig  families  at  defiance,  and  to  rule 
Great  Britain  according  to  his  own  notions.  In  these  views  the 
young  King  was  generally  supported  by  the  Tories.  In  order  to 
succeed  in  their  schemes,  it  was  necessary  to  beat  the  Old  Whigs 
at  their  own  game,  and  secure  a  steady  majority  in  Parliament 
by  methods  involving  bribery  and  corruption. 

"Beside  these  two  parties  of  Tories  and  Old  Whigs,  a  third  had 
been  for  some  time  growing  up.  It  was  called  the  party  of  New 
Whigs.  Among  sundry  reforms  advocated  by  them,  the  most 
important  was  the  redistribution  of  seats  in  the  House  of  Com 
mons.  They  wished  to  stop  the  wholesale  corruption,  and  to  make 
that  assembly  truly  represent  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  The 
principal  leader  of  this  party  was  William  Pitt. 

"We  can  now  see  why  the  antagonism  between  the  King  and 
Pitt  was  so  obstinate  and  bitter.  With  a  reformed  Parliament, 
the  King's  schemes  would  be  ruined;  their  only  chance  of  success 
lay  in  keeping  the  old  kind  of  Parliament  with  all  its  corruptions. 
So  when  Pitt  declared  that  it  was  wrong  for  the  people  of  great 
cities,  like  Leeds  and  Birmingham,  who  paid  their  full  share  of 
taxes,  not  to  be  represented  in  Parliament,  the  King  felt  bound 
to  oppose  it  by  every  means  in  his  power. 

"  Now  the  debates  on  the  Stamp  Act  showed  that  the  same 
principle  applied  to  the  Americans  as  to  the  inhabitants  of  Bir 
mingham  and  Leeds.  'No  taxation  without  representation/  the 
watchword  of  Patrick  Henry  and  Samuel  Adams,  was  also  the 


142  THE    REVOLUTION 

watchword  of  William  Pitt.1  The  King,  therefore,  felt  that  in  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  no  matter  on  what  ground,  the  New 
Whigs  had  come  altogether  too  near  winning  a  victory.  He  could 
not  let  the  matter  rest,  but  felt  it  necessary  to  take  it  up  again, 
and  press  it  until  the  Americans  should  submit  to  be  taxed  by 
Parliament.  This  quarrel  between  George  III  and  the  Americans 
grew  into  the  Revolutionary  War.  In  that  struggle,  the  people 
of  England  were  not  our  enemies;  we  had  nowhere  better  friends 
than  among  the  citizens  of  London,  and  on  the  floors  of  the  House 
of  Commons  and  the  House  of  Lords.  As  a  rule,  the  New  Whigs 
and  Old  Whigs  sympathized  with  the  Americans;  of  the  Tories, 
some  went  heartily  with  the  King,  while  others  disapproved  his 
measures,  but  were  unwilling  to  oppose  them." 

150.    Import  duties  levied.  Parliament  had  yielded  in  the 
matter  of  the  Stamp  Act.    It  was  so  blind,  however,  as  to 

Pf  reist,  that  Jt  hajd  the  H^ht  tO  tax 
the  colonies,  and  went  about  the 

an  IMPORTER-,^  the     matter  in  a  new  way.    In  1767  it 

BRAZEN  HEAD,        ordered  the  colonists  to  pay  new 

and   heavy  duties  on   many  im- 
TOWN-HOUSE,     ported   articles    in    common    use, 
and  oppo/ite  the  Tvwn-Pumpy  in     for  example  paper,  glass,  and  tea. 


C«r,.hi«,    BOSTON.  S° 

troops  were  to  be  fed  and  paid, 

and  governors,  judges,  and  other 

Tt  is  defired  that  the  SONS  and     colonial  officers  of  the  King  were 
DAUGHTERS  of  LlBERTr,     to  have  their  salaries.     Up  to  this 

would  not  buy  anyone  thing  of       time    such    officers    were          ;d    b 
him,  for  info  doing  they  will  bring         .  U1.  ,  i  .i_ 

Difgrace  upon  a*»feh**,  and  the*     the   assemblies,   and   unless   they 
Parity,  for  ever  and  ever,  AMEN      acted  to  suit  them  they  received 
A  HAND-BILL  CIRCULATED     nothing;  hereafter  they  would  be 
IN  BOSTON  ABOUT  1768        independent  of  the  assemblies. 

The     Massachusetts     assembly 

took  the  lead  in  opposition  to  the  new  taxes,  and  sent  out 
a  circular  letter  inviting  cooperation  from  all  the  colonies. 
The  King  was  angry  at  this,  and  threatened  to  order  the 
assembly  to  adjourn  unless  it  rescinded  this  letter;  where- 

1  In  after  years,  when  the  Americans  had  won  their  cause,  it  was  agreed  that 
hereafter,  in  Great  Britain,  representation  should  go  hand-in-hand  with  taxation. 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION 


143 


upon  Otis,  who  was  then  speaker  of  that  body,  uttered  these 
defiant  words:  "  We  are  asked  to  rescind,  are  we?  Let 
Great  Britain  rescind  her  measures,  or  the  colonies  are  lost 
to  her  forever." 

Once  more  the  people  of  the  colonies  signed  pledges  to 
"  eat  nothing,  drink  nothing,  wear  nothing  "  that  had  to 
come  from  Great  Britain,  until  the  duties  were  taken  off. 
Again  did  British  merchants  complain  at  the  destruction  of 
their  large  American  trade,  so  that  in  1770  Parliament  once 
more  felt  forced  to  pacify  them.  It  removed  all  of  the  new 
duties  except  one  of  six  cents  a  pound  on  tea,  which  article 
was  much  used  by  the  colonists;  this  was  retained,  it  was 
said,  "  to  keep  up  the  right."  Parliament's  persistence  in. 
claiming  such  a  privilege  left 
the  Americans  quite  as  angry 
as  ever. 

151.  The  Boston  Massacre. 
Several  quarrels  now  arose  be 
tween  the  King's  soldiers  and 
the  colonists.1  The  worst  of 
these  took  place  in  Boston, 
on  March  5,  1770,  when  the 
soldiers  killed  three  men  and 
wounded  several  others  —  an 
event  known  in  history  as  ' '  the 
Boston  Massacre."  A  large 
town  meeting  was  held  the 
following  day,  and  in  obedi 
ence  to  its  demand  the  troops 
were  removed  to  an  island  in  the  harbor.2 

Under  the  masterly  guidance  of  Samuel  Adams,  clerk 

1  In  the  summer  of  1769  Otis  was  savagely  beaten  by  a  number  of  British 
officers,  and  so  badly  injured  in  the  head  that  for  a  time  he  was  insane.    He 
was  able,  however,  to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

2  In  Rhode  Island  one  of  the  King's  revenue  vessels,  the  Gaspee,  engaged 
in  hunting  down  smugglers,  was  burned  by  the  colonists.    In  North  Carolina 
the  Governor  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  a  public  meeting.    Such  are  ex 
amples  of  events  that  happened  in  various  parts  of  the  colonies  during  these 
stirring  times. 


SAMUEL    ADAMS 


144 


THE-  REVOLUTION 


of  the  Massachusetts  assembly,1  the-  massacre  led  to  the 
appointment  of  "  committees  of  correspondence  "  in  the 
several  towns,  to  keep  the  people  informed  by  letters  of 
what  was  going  on. 

152.  An  offer  of  cheap  tea.    The  King  and  his  ministers 
now  resorted  to  a  new  trick.  They  arranged  to  have  several 
shiploads  of  tea  sent  over  to  the  principal  American  seaports, 
and  offered  for  sale  at  prices  lower  than  the  colonists  could 
get  it  by  smuggling.    King  George  laughingly  declared  that 
the  Americans  wrere  a  thrifty,  saving  people,  who  could  never 

turn  away  from 
a  bargain.  They 
would,  he  said, 
eagerly  buy  this 
cheap  tea,  and 
thereby  pay  on  it 
the  duty  of  six 
cents,  thus  agree 
ing  to  the  Par 
liamentary  tax 
which  had  been 
levied  just  "to 
keep  up  the 
right."  But  he 
did  not  understand  of  what  stuff  his  American  subjects 
were  made.  They  readily  saw  through  his  scheme,  and  flatly 
refused  to  import  any  tea  whatever  through  the  custom 
houses,  no  matter  how  low  the  price. 

153.  Colonial   "  tea-parties."     Most  of  the    dealers  to 
whom  the  tea  had  been  sent  were  forced  by  the  local  com 
mittees  of  correspondence  to  promise  that  they  would  not 

1  Samuel  Adams  was  a  cousin  of  John  Adams,  later  President,  and  born  in 
Boston  in  1722.  He  was  city  tax  collector,  and  had  great  influence  with  the 
people  when  the  troubles  with  England  began.  From  1765  to  1774  he  was  a 
member  of  the  assembly  and  its  clerk;  as  such  he  drew  up  most  of  its  important 
resolutions,  addresses,  and  reports.  He  headed  the  committee  of  correspondence, 
and  did  more  than  any  one  else  to  manage  the  Massachusetts  quarrel  with  the 
King;  he  came,  indeed,  to  be  called  the  "Father  of  the  Revolution."  In  1774  he 
was  elected  to  the  first  Continental  Congress,  and  became  prominent  in  that  body. 
In  later  years  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  died  in  1803. 


Courtesy,  D.  Appleton  If  Co. 
THE   BOSTON    TEA-PARTY 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION 


receive  it  from  the  ships. .  In  such  cases  it  was  landed  by 
customs  officers,  but  the  latter  could  get  no  one  to  pay  the 
duties  and  take  it  from  the  Government  warehouses. 

Upon  the  arrival  of  the  tea  ships  at  Boston,  however, 
the  dealers  would  not  refuse  to  receive  their  consignment. 
Accordingly  there  was  held  in  the  famous  Old  South 
Meeting-House,1  a 
monster  town  meet 
ing  under  the  con 
trol  of  the  tireless 
SamuelAdams.  Pas 
sionate  speeches 
were  made,  but  the 
dealers  stood  firm. 
Soon  after  nightfall, 
a  wild  war-whoop 
was  heard  in  1  he 
street  outside  the 
church,  and  about 
fifty  men  dressed  as 
Indians  rushed  to 
the  wharf,  followed 
by  several  thousands  of  their  fellow  townsmen,  and  boarded 
the  tea  vessels.  Here,  encouraged  by  cheers  from  the 
people  on  shore,  the  masqueraders  promptly  ripped  open 
three  hundred  and  forty-two  chests  of  tea,  and  threw  the 
contents,  valued  at  $90,000,  overboard  into  the  harbor. 
The  crowd  then  quickly  dispersed.3 

1  This  church,  built  in  1730,  was  much  used  for  public  meetings  of  the  Re 
volutionary  Party.    During  the  siege  of  Boston  the  British  used  it  as  a  riding- 
school.  It  is  now  used  as  a  museum  for  historical  relics,  and  as  a  hall  for  popular 
lectures  on  history  and  other  patriotic  subjects. 

2  Faneuil  Hall  is  a  celebrated  meeting-place  in  Boston.    It  was  built  in  1742 
by  Peter  Faneuil,  a  merchant,  who  gave  it  to  the  city.   The  lower  floor  was  to 
be  used  as  a  market,  as  it  still  is,  and  the  second  as  a  town  hall.   As  most  of  the 
Revolutionary  meetings  were  held  there,  it  is  called  the  "cradle  of  liberty." 
The  Old  South  Church,  however,  could  hold  larger  audiences. 

3  The  "Boston  Tea-Party,"  as  it  is  called,  was  held  December  16,   1773. 
In  a  popular  song  of  that  day,  Columbia  is  represented  as  saying  to  Britain 
at  this  party :  — 

"You  may  have'your  tea  when  't  is  steeped  enough, 
But  never  a  tax  from  me." 


Ari  engraving  published  in  1788 
FANEUIL   HALL,    BOSTON,    IN    17752 


146  THE    REVOLUTION 

This  bold  act  greatly  encouraged  the  spirit  of  independ 
ence  in  other  colonies  and  towns.  A  few  months  later  the 
first  tea  ship  arrived  in  New  York  Harbor,  and  was  also 
boarded  by  a  committee  of  citizens,  who  quietly  dumped 
the  cargo  into  the  water.1 

154.  The  "  Intolerable  Acts."  The  King  said  that  Mas 
sachusetts,  with  her  "  tea-parties  "  and  other  riotous  pro 
ceedings,  was  setting  a  very  bad  example  to  the  rest  of  the 
colonists.  He  therefore  caused  Parliament  early  in  1774 
to  pass  four  laws  that  were  meant  to  hurt  all  of  the  colo 
nists  in  some  manner,  but  particularly  rebellious  Massachu 
setts.  "  The  Intolerable  Acts,"  as  the  angry  Americans 
called  them,  were:- 

(a)  The  Port  Bill.  This  closed  the  port  of  Boston  against 
all  trade  until  the  destroyed  tea  should  be  paid  for. 

(b)  The  Regulating  Act.  This  provided  that  hereafter  all 
Massachusetts  judges  and  sheriffs,  and  some  other  officers, 
should  be  appointed  and  paid  by  the  governor,  and  not  by 
the  assembly.    Town  meetings,  in  which  from  the  earliest 
days  the  inhabitants  had  met  to  make  laws  for  themselves, 
were  also  abolished  in  that  colony.    The  King  said  that 
these  meetings  were  "  hotbeds  of  disloyalty." 

(c)  The  Quartering  and  Trial  Act.  This  obliged  citizens 
of  Massachusetts  to  take  the  King's  troops  into  their  houses 
and  board  them  free.  It  further  provided  that  when  soldiers 
were  accused  of  killing  colonists  they  should  be  taken  for 
trial  to  England.    Americans  believed  that  this  meant  the 
murderers  would  in  time  be  set  free. 

(d)  The  Quebec  Act.   This  provided  that  the  country  west 
of  the  Alleghenies  and  north  of  the  Ohio  River  should  be  a 
part  of  the  Province  of  Quebec;  and  therefore  be  ruled  by 
the  old  French  law,  under  which  there  was  no  representa 
tive  government.    Settlers  were  forbidden,  without  leave, 

1  In  Annapolis,  Maryland,  the  same  year,  a  mob  burned  a  tea-laden  vessel. 

A  year  later  a  crowd  of  South  Carolinians  emptied  tea  chests  into  the  har 
bors  of  Charleston  and  Georgetown.  Some  tea  that  had  been  landed  by  Charles 
ton  customs  officers  was  about  three  years  later  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Revolutionary  cause. 


THE    GROWTH    OF    DISSATISFACTION 


147 


to  go  into  this  vast  region,  which  was  to  be  kept  as  a  forest 
for  the  benefit  of  the  fur  trade.  American  frontiersmen  did 
not  obey  this  command,  but  nevertheless  they  were  irritated 
at  the  King's  attempt  to  prevent  them  from  expanding 
toward  the  west. 

155.  Resisting  the  new  laws.    The  King  now  sent  to 
Massachusetts  a  military  governor,  General  Thomas  Gage, 
who  was  ordered  to  use  the  soldiers  in  enforcing  "  the  In 
tolerable  Acts,"  and  to  send  all  rebellious  persons  to  England 
for  trial.  Committees 

of  correspondence  in 
the  other  colonies 
sent  word  to  Boston 
to  stand  firm  to  the 
last,  no  matter  what 
happened;  for  if  its 
citizens  failed, 
would  be  over. 

156.  First     Con 
tinental    Congress. 
The  colonists  prompt 
ly    held   conventions 
and  elected  their  most 
distinguished  men l  as 
delegates  to   a  Con 
gress   to   be   held  in 

September,  1774,  at  Philadelphia,  to  discuss  these  impor 
tant  matters.  In  the  Virginia  convention,  Patrick  Henry 
exclaimed,  "  There  is  no  longer  any  room  for  hope.  .  .  . 
We  must  fight!  ...  I  know  not  what  course  others  may 
take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death!  ' 

The  Congress  sent  to  the  King  a  "  Declaration  of  rights 
and  grievances."  In  this  paper  Parliament  was  plainly 

1  George  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  Richard  Henry  Lee  were  among 
those  from  Virginia;  John  and  Samuel  Adams  represented  Massachusetts; 
Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut  was  also  prominent.  Many  of  these  great  lead 
ers  of  the  Revolution  now  met  each  other  for  the  first  time,  and  in  the  defense 
of  their  country  became  firm  friends. 


INDEPENDENCE    HALL,    PHILADELPHIA, 
IN    1776 


148  THE    REVOLUTION 

told  that  it  was  not  supreme  over  the  colonies,  which  would 
obey  only  their  own  assemblies.  The  members  also  ar 
ranged  to  keep  the  country  promptly  informed  by  letters 
and  mounted  messengers  as  to  what  was  occurring  in  Bos 
ton,  the  center  of  disturbance. 

157.  Americans  will  not  yield.  The  colonies  and  their 
many  supporters  in  England  enthusiastically  approved  of 
these  proceedings.  George  Washington  declared,  "  I  will 
ra'ise  one  thousand  men,  subsist  them  at  my  own  expense, 
and  march  myself  at  their  head  for  the  relief  of  Boston." 
Pitt  told  Parliament,  "  For  solidity  of  reason,  force  of  sa 
gacity,  and  wisdom  of  conclusion  under  a  complication  of 
difficult  circumstances,  no  nation  or  body  of  men  can  stand 
in  preference  to  the  general  Congress  at  Philadelphia." 

Plans  for  conciliation  were  urged  in  Parliament  by  him 
and  by  Burke,  also  by  Franklin,  who  was  in  England  as  the 
agent  of  the  colonies.  But  all  their  efforts  proved  vain,  for 
the  insolent  majority  seemed  eager  to  please  the  hot-headed 
King.  The  Americans  now  saw  that  nothing  remained  for 
them  but  to  follow  the  example  of  their  ancestors  in  England, 
and  fig  ht  for  the  cherished  principle  of  self-government. 


THE    GROWTH    OF 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  argument  of  the  British  Government  for  taxing  the 
colonists? 

2.  Show  that  the  people  of  England  were  not  united  in  their  attitude 
toward  the  colonists. 

3.  In  what  way  were  the  colonists  used  to  representative  government? 

4.  Note  that  the  British  Government  attempted  to  make  use  of  two  meth 
ods  of  raising  money  in  the  colonies.   State  what  these  methods  were. 
Show  that  the  United  States  Government  now  uses  these  two  methods 
of  raising  money. 

5.  What  good  effect  did  the  "Stamp  Act  Congress"  have  on  the  colonists? 

6.  What  was  the  mistake  of  Parliament  after  it  repealed  the  Stamp  Act? 

7.  State  clearly  the  history  of  the  "Tea  Tax." 

8.  After  the  "tea  troubles,"  what  was  the  next  step  of  Parliament  which 
greatly  annoyed  the  colonists?  What  was  the  effect  in  the  colonies? 

9.  When  and  where  was  the  first  Continental  Congress  held?   What  was 
its  purpose? 

10.  What  colonies  led  in  opposing  the  King? 

n.  If  you  had  lived  in  the  colonies  in  1774,  what  statement  would  you  have 
made  of  the  grievances  against  the  mother  country? 

12.  Dramatize  the  meeting  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-House. 

13.  Dramatize  a  meeting  of  a  "Spinning  Society."    Give  an  imaginary 
conversation. 

14.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  brief  biography  of  Patrick  Henry,  James  Otis,  or  Samuel 
Adams. 

2.  Write  in  brief  form  what  might  have  been  an  appeal  from  Franklin 
to  the  King,  after  the  Stamp  Act  Congress. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  took  part  in  the  Boston  Tea-Party.   The  next  day 
you  visit  your  uncle  in  Cambridge  and  tell  him  about  it.  He  thinks  you 
were  wrong  and  you  try  to  convince  him  of  the  justness  of  your  course. 
Write  the  conversation. 

4.  "You  cannot,  my  lords, 'you  cannot  conquer  America.  ...  If  I  were 
an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while  a  foreign  troop  remained  in 
my  country  I  never  would  lay  down  my  arms;  no,  never,  never,  never!" 

[Extract  from  a  speech  by  WILLIAM  PITT.] 

Write  a  brief  paper  on  William  Pitt's  efforts  to  prevent  war  with  the 
colonies. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  COLONISTS  DECLARE  THEIR  INDEPENDENCE 

158.  Beginning  of  hostilities.  General  Gage  began  to 
throw  up  earthworks  around  Boston,  and  his  soldiers,1  whose 
numbers  were  now  steadily  increasing,  each  day  grew  more 
insolent. 

On  their  part  the  colonists  organized  themselves  into  com 
panies  of  "  minutemen  "  -  so  called  because  pledged  to 
be  ready  at  a  minute's  notice  to  spring  to  the  defense  of 
their  liberties.  Drill 
ing  was  practiced  on 
every  town  green, 
and  firearms,  bayo 
nets,  ammunition, 
and  other  materials 
for  use  in  war  were 
secretly  stored  in 
convenient  places. 

Some  of  it  was  hid 
den  at  Concord,  a 
village  twenty  miles 
out  of  Boston,  and 
this  Gage  deter 
mined  to  capture.  In 
the  night  of  April  18,  1775,  he  secretly  sent  thither  eight 
hundred  of  his  best  soldiers,  who  were  instructed  to  stop  on 
the  way,  at  Lexington,  and  arrest  the  two  leaders  of  the 
patriots,  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams,  who  were  stay 
ing  there.  But  the  news  of  this  expedition  leaked  out.  In 
accordance  with  a  prearranged  signal  a  lantern  was  hung 
by  the  Boston  committee  in  the  belfry  of  Old  North  Church; 

1  Because  of  their  scarlet  jackets,  the  Americans  called  them  "  redcoats," 


BOSTON,  LEXINGTON,  CONCORD,  AND 
VICINITY 


152 


THE   REVOLUTION 


its  flashing  light  conveyed  information  that  the  soldiers 
had  started.  Paul  Revere,  who  was  waiting  in  Charles- 
town  for  this  purpose,  galloped  ahead  of  the  troops  on  a 
fast  horse,  and  with  warning  shouts  awakened  the  farmers 
living  along  the  highway  leading  to  the  threatened  villages.1 
Some  minutemen  who  were  guarding  the  house  in  Lexington 
where  Hancock  and  Adams  were  stopping,  called  to  him, 


Painting  by  Chappel 

THE   RETREAT   OF  THE   BRITISH   FROM   CONCORD 
Here  the  troops  are  entering  the  town  ot  Lexington 

"  Don't  make  so  much  noise!"  "  Noise!  "  cried  the  indig 
nant  Revere,  "  you  '11  soon  have  noise  enough;  the  regulars 
are  coming!  " 

When  the  redcoats  marched  into  Lexington  early  in  the 
morning  they  found  the  highway  blocked  by  a  large  party  of 
minutemen  who  silently  awaited  their  approach.  These  hardy 
and  courageous  fellows,  mostly  farmers  of  the  neighborhood, 

1  Longfellow's  poem,  Paul  Revere's  Ride,  has  helped  to  immortalize  this 
stirring  incident. 

William  Dawes  did  a  similar  service  to  the  southwest  of  Boston,  by  way  of 
Roxbury,  for  it  was  feared  that  troops  might  also  be  sent  in  that  direction. 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE  153 

had  been  told  by  their  commander,  "  Don't  fire  unless  you  're 
fired  on ;  but  if  they  want  a  war,  it  may  as  well  begin  here." 
The  British  officer  cried,  "  Disperse,  you  rebels!  "  But  as 
they  would  not  stir,  the  soldiers  poured  a  volley  into  their 
ranks,  and  eight  were  killed  —  the  first  American  patriots 
to  lose  their  lives  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  Hancock  and 
Adams  easily  escaped  ;x  but  later  in  the  day  the  war  material 
at  Concord,  although  stoutly  defended  at  the  town  bridge  by 
four  hundred  minutemen,  was  destroyed  by  the  British. 

From  Lexington  messengers  had  hurried  on  horseback  to 
alarm  the  neighboring  towns.  As  a  consequence  the  regu 
lars  found  the  highway,  on  their  return  march  to  Boston, 
lined  with  more  than  a  thousand  minutemen,  who  from  be 
hind  houses,  stone  and  rail  fences,  trees,  and  rocks,  poured 
a  merciless  fire  into  the  retreating  column.  The  troops 
finally  reached  Boston  exhausted  and  panic-stricken,  having 
lost  about  a  third  of  their  number  in  killed  and  wounded. 
The  long-expected  war  had  begun  in  earnest. 

159.  Second    Continental    Congress.    In  the  following 
month  (May  10,  1775),  the  Second 

Continental  Congress  began  its 
session  at  Philadelphia,  and  was 
presided  over  by  John  Hancock.2 
Throughout  the  war  this  body 
served  as  the  general  Colonial 
Government.  On  the  whole,  the 
Congress  was  a  body  of  distin 
guished  and  patriotic  men,  worthy 
of  our  nation's  deepest  gratitude. 

160.  George    Washington    ap 
pointed  commander.    Among  the 

first  things  done  by  Congress  was  JOHN  HANCOCK 

1  The  two  patriots  started  at  once  for  the  Continental  Congress  at  Phila 
delphia.  As  they  walked  across  the  fields,  the  rattle  of  musketry  was  heard,  and 
Adams  exclaimed,  "Oh!  what  a  glorious  morning  is  this!"  He  saw  in  it  the  be 
ginning  of  the  Revolution  that  was  to  set  his  country  free. 

2  The  most  prominent  of  the  new  members  was  a  young  Virginia  lawyer 
named  Thomas  Jefferson.    Although  neither  an  orator  nor  debater,  he  had 
ft  wide  knowledge  of  law  and  was  an  ardent  patriot. 


154  THE   REVOLUTION 

to  provide  for  a  Continental  army,  under  the  command  of 
George  Washington.  The  nucleus  of  this  army  was  the  large 
body  of  minutemen  now  encamped  around  Boston. 

The  Revolution  owed  its  success  chiefly  to  this  remarkable 
leader.  He  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  skillful  soldiers 
the  world  has  ever  known ;  his  character  was  strong  and  sin 
cere;  he  had  sound  judgment,  was  firm,  resourceful,  and  un 
selfishly  devoted  to  the  cause  of  his  countrymen.  One  of  his 
most  remarkable  traits  was  his  patience.  He  could  calmly 
bear  great  responsibilities;  never  was  he  guilty  of  rashness 
or  caprice,  and  he  had  courage  to  meet  and  overcome  those 
who  misrepresented  him.  Once  he  wrote,  "  Defeat  is  only 
a  reason  for  exertion;  we  shall  do  better  next  time."  These 
qualities  made  him  one  of  the  greatest  men  in  history.1 

161.  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point.  On  the  very  day 
that  Congress  assembled,  some  of  the  Vermont  patriots, 
called  "  Green  Mountain  Boys,"  surprised  and  easily  cap 
tured  Fort  Ticonderoga,  on  Lake  Champlain.   Ethan  Allen, 
their  bold  and  dashing  leader,  told  the  astonished  English 
commandant  that  he  took  possession  of  the  stronghold  "  In 
the  name  of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Con 
gress."  Two  days  later,  Crown  Point,  lying  to  the  north,  also 
fell  into  American  hands,  and  with  it  large  stores  of  British 
powrder  and  ball.2 

162.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.    By  the  first  of  June,  the 
British  garrison  in  Boston  had  by  reinforcements  from  Eng 
land  grown  to  ten  thousand.  They  were  besieged  by  sixteen 
thousand  determined  militiamen. 

Overlooking  Boston  on  the  north  is  Bunker  Hill ,  in  Charles- 
town;  Dorchester  Heights  commands  the  city  from  the 
southeast.  Gage  decided  to  occupy  both  of  these  hills,  to  pre- 

1  The  face  of  this  noble-hearted  man  would  sometimes  light  up  into  a  pleas 
ant  smile;  but  when  at  rest,  it  was  stern,  and  in  moments  of  indignation  he 
showed  that  he  had  a  quick  temper.    However,  he  kept  this  well  under  con« 
trol,  and  was  one  of  the  most  courteous,  dignified,  and  distinguished-looking 
gentlemen  of  his  day. 

2  These  two  forts  guarded  the  old  portage  route  between  Canada  and  the 
Hudson  River.   The  Americans  needed  them  to  protect  New  York  against  at* 
tack  from  Canada. 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE 


155 


rent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  "  rebels."  He  wished 
first  to  take  Bunker  Hill,  and  for  this  purpose  on  June  17 
sent  an  expedition  of  three  thousand  men  under  General 
Howe.  This  force  found  the  eminence  occupied  by  about 
twelve  hundred  patriots  under  Generals  Putnam  and  War- 


A  contemporary  engraving 


THE   BATTLE    OF   BUNKER   HILL 


In  this  curious  old  picture  can  be  seen  the  Old  North  Church  and  the  English  camp  and  batteries  in 
Boston  ;  the  bombardment  and  burning  of  Chariest  own;  some  English  troops  in  boats  moving  to  the 
assault,  and  others  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  firing  upon  the  American  lines  at  the  crest 

ren  and  Colonel  Prescott,  who  had  hastily  thrown  up  earth 
works  during  the  night. 

Throughout  the  fighting  which  followed,  the  British  ships 
steadily  cannonaded  the  American  redoubt.  The  people  of 
Boston  excitedly  watched  the  battle  from  their  windows 
and  housetops,  and  some  of  them  from  the  church  stee 
ples.1  Twice  did  Howe  gallantly  lead  his  regulars  up  the 
steep  slope,  only  to  be  repulsed.  The  undisciplined  minute- 
men  coolly  waited  behind  their  breastworks  until  the 

1  In  Holmes's  vivid  poem,  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill  Battle,  the  nar 
rator  is  supposed  to  have  seen  the  fight  from  the  belfry  of  a  Boston  steeple. 


156  THE   REVOLUTION 

soldiers,  who  outnumbered  them  two  to  one,  were  in  close 
range,  and  then  poured  murderous  volleys  into  the  solid  red 
ranks.  The  regulars  advanced  a  third  time,  and  drove  the 
Americans  from  their  breastworks,  but  only  after  a  sharp 
hand-to-hand  fight,  the  colonial  forces  having  exhausted 
their  ammunition.  Each  side  lost  about  a  third  of  its  force. 
Among  the  Americans  who  fell  was  the  brave  Warren  him 
self,  who  had  been  an  inspiring  leader  in  the  battle.1 

The  volunteers  had  lost  the  hill ;  but  their  splendid  fight 
ing  qualities  caused  the  colonists  everywhere  to  rejoice. 
Washington  heard  the  news  while  he  was  hurrying  north 
from  his  home  in  Virginia,  to  take  charge  of  the  Continen 
tal  army,  and  declared,  with  more  enthusiasm  than  he  com 
monly  showed,  "The  liberties  of  the  country  are  now  safe!" 
A  wise  king  would  have  felt  that  such  brave  Englishmen 
were  worth  better  treatment  than  they  were  receiving. 

163.  Washington  takes  command.  Washington  finally 
arrived  at  Cambridge,  in  the  outskirts  of  Boston,  and  on 
July  3,  1775,  took  command  of  the  assembled  volunteers.2 
But  the  ;<  Continentals,"  as  the  men  of  his  army  were  now 
called,  had  had  little  military  practice,  their  supplies  were 
meagre,  and  cannon  and  powder  were  scarce.     Not  until 
these  glaring  defects  were  remedied  could  Washington  begin 
active  operations  against  the  enemy  in  Boston.3 

164.  The  British  evacuate  Boston.  Early  in  March,  1776, 

1  A  tall  stone  monument  stands  on  Bunker  Hill  as  a  memorial  of  the  fight. 
Its  corner-stone  was  laid  on  June  17,  1825,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle, 
by  General  Lafayette,  who  was  then  revisiting  the  United  States.   On  that  oc 
casion  Daniel  Webster  delivered  one  of  his  most  famous  addresses. 

2  The  elm  tree  under  which  he  stood  during  the  ceremony  is  still  standing. 

3  While  Washington  was  improving  his  army  he  sent  two  small  parties  to 
Canada,  hoping  that  the  French  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  might  join  in  the 
protest  against  the  King:  (a)  General  Montgomery  went  by  way  of  Lakes 
George  and  Champlain,  and  having  captured  Montreal  proceeded  to  Quebec. 
(b)  Colonel  Benedict  Arnold  marched  to  Quebec  over  one  of  the  portage  trails 
connecting  Maine  and  Canada.     For  six  weeks  his  detachment  suffered  from 
exposure  and  starvation  in  the  forests  of  Maine,  and  lost  many  men  from  deser 
tion. 

On  December  31,  1775,  the  combined  American  forces  stormed  Quebec,  but 
failed  to  take  it,  Montgomery  being  killed  and  Arnold  badly  wounded.  The 
Americans  then  retreated  from  Canada,  which  remained  friendly  to  Great 
Britain. 


DECLARATION  OF   INDEPENDENCE          157 

after  a  busy  winter  of  drilling,  Washington  felt  that  at  last 
his  small  army  was  sufficiently  trained  and  equipped  for 
action.1  While  feigning  to  attack  Boston  from  his  Cam 
bridge  camp,  he  took  advantage  of  the  confusion  to  slip 
quietly  around  to  the  rear,  with  two  thousand  picked  men, 
and  occupy  Dorchester  Heights,  of  which  the  British  had 


By    the     KING, 

A     PROCLAMATION, 

For  fuppreffing  Rebellion  and  Sedition* 
GEORGE    R. 

^HEREAS  many  of  Our  Subjcfts  in  divers  Parts  of  Our  Colonies  and  Plantations 
in  North  America,  milled  by  dangerous  and  ill-defigning  Men,  and  forgetting 
the  Allegiance  which  they  owe  to  the  Power  that  has  protected  and  fuftained 
them,  after  various  disorderly  Acls  committed  in  Disturbance  of  the  Publick 
Peace,  to  the  Obftrudlion  of  lawful  Commerce,  and  to  the  Oppreflion  of  Our 
loyal  Subjects  carrying  on  the  fame,  have  at  length  proceeded  to  an  open  and 
ta  avowed  Rebellion,  by  arraying  thcmfclves  in  holtile  Manner  to  withftand  the 
&  Execution  of  the  Law,  a;id  traitoroufly  preparing,  ordering,  and  levying  -War 
f(3Q$«6Gb£ttp»«y  againft  Us-  And  whereas,  iher-  i«  ReaC».v» .«nfftsA«iirf  eiai  luch  Rebellion  hath 
been  iiiucn  promoted'  and'  encouraged  by  the  traitorous  Correfpondcnce,  Counfels,  and  Comfort  of 

THE  OPENING   LINES   OF   THE   KING'S   PROCLAMATION   AGAINST 
THE  AMERICAN   COLONIES,  AUGUST  23,  1775 

neglected  to  take  possession.  From  this  point  he  threat 
ened  to  bombard  the  town  if  it  were  not  at  once  evacuated. 
Howe,  who  now  commanded  the  British,2  was  mortified 
at  being  thus  outwitted  through  the  cleverness  of  one  whom 
he  called  "  a  mere  militiaman."  He  had,  however,  learned 
caution  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  rather  than  have  another  such 
fight,  he  marched  all  of  his  soldiers  on  board  ships  and  sailed 

1  Some  of  the  cannon  captured  at  Ticonderoga  were  brought  on  ox-sleds 
across  country  to  Boston. 

2  Gage  had  been  ordered  home  to  England  in  October,  1775. 


158  THE   REVOLUTION 

away  with  them  to  Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia.  A  thousand 
or  more  citizens  who  were  still  loyal  to  the  King,  accompa 
nied  Howe  and  settled  on  the  seacoast  of  Canada.1  When 
Washington  marched  into  Boston  the  following  day,  he  found 
there  large  quantities  of  ammunition  and  cannon  that  Howe 
Jn  his  hurry  had  left  behind.  These  were  an  important  addi 
tion  to  the  scanty  stores  of  the  Revolutionary  army.2 

165.  Urging  independence.  A  small  party  of  radicals, 
like  James  Otis  and  Samuel  Adams,  had  from  the  first  urged 
the  colonists  to  free  themselves  from  the  rule  of  the  mother 
country.  But  up  to  the  close  of  1775  most  people  disliked 
the  thought  of  independence.  They  were  hopeful  that  when 
the  King  learned  of  the  earnestness  and  strength  of  the 
Americans,  he  would  ask  Parliament  to  grant  them  their 
rights  as  self-governing  Englishmen.3 

But  the  stubborn  King  would  not  even  look  at  the  "  De 
claration  of  rights  and  grievances  "  sent  to  him  by  the  Con 
tinental  Congress.  He  promptly  hired  about  sixteen  thou 
sand  German  soldiers4  to  put  down  the  "open  and  armed 
rebellion  "  in  America.  This  conduct  roused  the  colonists 
to  immediate  action.5 

1  Not  all  of  the  Americans  sided  with  the  Revolutionary  Party.    In  every 
colony  many  remained  loyal  to  the  King.  They  were  called  Tories  or  Royalists, 
but  historians  now  generally  style  them  Loyalists.     They  were  at  the  time 
bitterly  hated  and  reviled  by  those  who  wanted  to  be  free  from  British  rule,  and 
they  suffered  abuse,  loss  of  property,  and  even  imprisonment.  But  among  them 
were  hundreds  of  men  and  women  of  fine  education  and  high  character,  who 
did  not  deserve  this  persecution. 

2  On  June  28,  1776,  the  patriot  garrison  of  Fort  Sullivan,  a  small  log  stockade 
in  the  harbor  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  was  attacked  by  a  British  fleet 
which  was  seeking  to  punish  the  rebels  in  the  Carolinas.    The  attacking  party 
was  driven  back  through  the  bravery  of   Colonel  Moultrie,  Sergeant  Jasper, 
and  others.    The  fort  was  then  renamed  Moultrie. 

3  Washington  once  wrote:  "When  I  first  took  command  of  the  Continental 
army,  I  abhorred  the  idea  of  independence." 

4  Called   Hessians,  because  they  were  largely  furnished  by  the  princes  of 
Hesse,  who  had  the  right,  under  ancient  laws,  to  sell  the  military  services  of 
their  subjects.    These  soldiers  therefore  could  not  help  taking  part  in  the 
American  war.    The  German  people  were  as  a  rule  very  indignant  at  this 
mercenary  proceeding.    King  George  was  obliged  to  employ  foreign  troops 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  raising  armies  in  England.    Before  applying  to  the 
princes  of  Hesse,  he  had  been  refused  troops  by  Empress  Catherine  of  Russia. 

6  One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  stirring  up  the  people  was  a  pamphlet 
by  Thomas  Paine,  called  Common  Sense,  in  which  he  eloquently  demanded  for 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE  159 

a  2<^*&*  Ay  ^^^u^^  jtL  WffTZV 

OF  AMERICA  ^  G™~<JL  Cm^,  «-*/awo££ 

i/r>.  f^j.  oou/ru^  A  kusrn&n,  u*tm£a  jt  /<x*rrvo  VVLMJ^UYI, 

vv«£4   WAX^v  /vx^v-c  t^rtfr^JUt^^J'b'sr^^AA^iZZZrt&r,  (tsmL'to 

.,./,.  ../.  __  ^j-jjjn__  '  ___  ft.  It  ,i.  M.  _      */       *  ^  '  4-^  --  ^~  '      i^  V  jd    >* 

cum^vfl         c    >«rW6^>         W 
<f\ 


V  <^  -*vxfi*^-0  V  ^o^  ^e^tcfj^.  n\t*^  t 


to  /&.  <T7>v*vo<rTxx>  ^  T*v«^rvv(i^Q  x^n^<J    /^<vt  /Kt« 


THE  OPENING  SENTENCE  OF  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

In  the  handwriting  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  showing  his  corrections.    A  few  slight  changes  were  further 
made  when  it  came  to  be  printed 

166.  The  Declaration  of  Independence.  Congress  ap 
pointed  a  committee  1  to  draw  up  a  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence.  2  The  actual  writing  of  this  great  document  was  in 
trusted  to  one  of  this  committee,  Thomas  Jefferson,  whose 
ringing  phrases  will  always  live  in  the  memory  of  our  people. 
The  delegates  listened  to  its  reading  with  bated  breath,  for 
it  meant  that  they  were  now  risking  their  lives  and  property 
in  order  that  they  and  their  descendants  might  enjoy  here, 
in  America,  "  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 
The  Declaration  reads  as  follows  :  3  - 

"  In  Congress,  July  4,  1776.  The  Unanimous  Declaration  of 
the  thirteen  United  States  of  America. 

"  When  in  the  Course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary 
for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connect 
ed  them  with  another,  and  to  assume  among  the  powers  of  the 

the  Americans  "the  rights  of  mankind,"  urged  his  fellow  citizens  at  once  to 
declare  independence,  and  boldly  wrote:  "Of  more  worth  is  one  honest  man  to 
society,  and  in  the  sight  of  God,  than  all  the  crowned  ruffians  that  ever  lived." 
Later,  Paine  published  a  periodical  called  The  Crisis.  The  first  number, 
beginning  with  the  memorable  sentence,  "These  are  the  times  that  try  men's 
souls,"  was  by  Washington's  order  read  aloud  to  the  army  in  camp.  "We  fight," 
said  Paine,  "  to  set  a  country  free,  and  to  make  room  upon  the  earth  for  honest 
men  to  live  in." 

1  Composed  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger 
Sherman,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston. 

2  As  early  as  May,  1775,  a  committee  in  Mecklenburg  County,  North  Caro 
lina,  declared  that  British  government  in  America  had  ceased. 

3  This  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  words,  spelling,  and  punctuation  of  the  docu 
ment,  as  finally  printed. 


160  THE  REVOLUTION 

earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the  Laws  of  Na 
ture  and  of  Nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes 
which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

"  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all  men  are  crea 
ted  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights,  that  among  these  are  Life,  Liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  Happiness.  —  That  to  secure  these  rights,  Govern 
ments  are  instituted  among  Men,  deriving  their  just  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed.  —  That  whenever  any  Form 
of  Government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right 
of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  new 
Government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  or 
ganizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely 
to  affect  their  Safety  and  Happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will 
dictate  that  Governments  long  established  should  not  be  changed 
for  light  and  transient  causes;  and  accordingly  all  experience 
hath  shown,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer,  while 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the 
forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of 
abuses  and  usurpations  pursuing  invariably  the  same  Object, 
evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  Despotism,  it 
is  their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  Government, 
and  to  provide  new  Guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has 
been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  Colonies;  and  such  is  now  the 
necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  Systems 
of  Government.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain 
is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in 
direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  Tyranny  over 
these  States.  To  prove  this  let  Facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid 
world. 

"  He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws,  the  most  wholesome  and 
necessary  for  the  public  good. 

"  He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  Laws  of  immediate 
and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation 
till  his  Assent  should  be  obtained;  and,  when  so  suspended,  he 
has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

"  He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for  the  accommodation  of 
large  districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish 
the  right  of  Representation  in  the  Legislature,  a  right  inesti 
mable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

"  He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual, 
uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public 
Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  compliance 
with  his  measures. 


DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE  161 

"  He  has  dissolved  Representative  Houses  repeatedly  for  oppos 
ing  with  manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

"  He  has  refused  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions  to  cause 
others  to  be  elected,  whereby  the  Legislative  powers,  incapable 
of  Annihilation  have  returned  to  the  People  at  large  for  their 
exercise,  the  State  remaining,  in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all 
the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

"  He  has  endeavoured  to  prevent  the  population  of  theseStates ; 
for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  Laws  of  Naturalization  of  For 
eigners;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migrations 
hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  Appropriations  of  Lands. 

"  He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  of  Justice  by  refusing 
his  Assent  to  Laws  for  establishing  Judiciary  powers. 

"  He  has  madejudges  dependent  on  his  Will  alone,  for  the  tenure 
of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

"  He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  Offices,  and  sent  hither 
swarms  of  Officers  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their  sub 
stance. 

"  He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  Standing  Armies 
without  the  Consent  of  our.  legislatures. 

"  He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military  independent  of  and 
superior  to  the  Civil  power. 

"  He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction 
foreign  to  our  constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws; 
giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  pretended  Legislation:  —  For 
quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us:  —  For  pro 
tecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial  from  punishment  for  any  Murders 
which  they  should  commit  on  the  Inhabitants  of  these  States:  - 
For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world:  —  For  im 
posing  Taxes  on  us  without  our  Consent:  —  For  depriving  us 
in  many  cases  of  the  benefits  of  Trial  by  jury:  —  For  transport 
ing  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offences :  —  For 
abolishing  the  free  System  of  English  Laws  in  a  neighbouring 
Province,  establishing  therein  an  Arbitrary  government,  and 
enlarging  its  Boundaries  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example 
and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute  rule  into 
these  Colonies:  —  For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolishing 
our  most  valuable  Laws,  and  altering  fundamentally  the  Forms 
of  our  Governments:  —  For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures, 
and  declaring  themselves  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for 
us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

"  He  has  abdicated  Government  here  by  declaring  us  out  of  his 
Protection,  and  waging  war  against  us:  — 

"  He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  Coasts,  burnt  our 
towns,  and  destroyed  the  Lives  of  our  people. 


1 62  THE  REVOLUTION 

"  He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  Armies  of  foreign  Merce 
naries  to  compleat  the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny, 
already  begun  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely 
paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the 
Head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

"  He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  en 
deavoured  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the  merci 
less  Indian  Savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare,  is  an  undis 
tinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes  and  conditions. 

"  He  has  constrained  our  fellow  citizens  taken  Captive  on  the 
high  Seas,  to  bear  arms  against  their  Country,  to  become  the 
executioners  of  their  friends  and  Brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves 
by  their  Hands. 

"  In  every  stage  of  these  Oppressions  We  have  Petitioned  for 
Redress  in  the  most  humble  terms:  Our  repeated  Petitions  have 
been  answered  only  by  repeated  injuries. 

"  A  Prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which 
may  define  a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

"  Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  attentions  to  our  British  breth 
ren.  We  have  warned  them  from  time  to  time  of  attempts  by  their 
legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We 
have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of  our  emigration  and 
settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice  and 
magnanimity  and  we  have  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  com 
mon  kindred  to  disavow  these  usurpations  which  would  inevit 
ably  interrupt  our  connection  and  correspondence.  They  too  have 
been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and  of  consanguinity.  We  must 
therefore  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separa 
tion  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  Enemies  in 
War,  in  Peace  Friends. 

"  We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  General  Congress  Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Su 
preme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do, 
in  the  Name,  and  by  Authority  of  the  good  People  of  these  Colo 
nies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  that  these  United  Colonies 
are  and  of  Right  ought  to  be  Free  and  Independent  States;  that 
they  are  Absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  Crown,  and 
that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  State  of  Great 
Britain,  is  and  ought  to  be  totally  dissolved ;  and  that  as  Free  and 
Independent  states,  they  have  full  Power  to  levy  War,  conclude 
Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and  to  do  all  other 
Acts  and  Things  which  Independent  States  may  of  right  do. 

"And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance 
on  the  protection  of  divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to 
each  other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes,  and  our  Sacred  Honor." 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


163 


167.  The  Signing  of  the  Declaration.  On  the  evening  of 
July  4,  1776,  this  momentous  paper  that  made  us  a  Nation 
was  solemnly  agreed  to  by  the  representatives  of  twelve 
States.   Later,  when  the  document  was  signed  by  the  dele 
gates,  John  Hancock,  president  of  the  Congress,  wrote  his 
name  first,  in  a  large,  bold  hand,  saying,  as  he  did  so, 
"  There!  John  Bull  can  read  my  name  without  spectacles." 
"  We  must  indeed  all  hang  together,"  said  the  wise  and 
witty  Franklin;  and  then  grimly  added,  with  a  smile,  "  or 
most  assuredly  we  shall  all  harig  separately." 

Great  was  the  rejoicing  of  the  colonists,  far  and  near, 
as  the  news  was  carried  to  them  by  swift-riding  mes 
sengers.  Statues  and  other  emblems  of  royalty  were  torn 
down,1  banquets  were  held,  bonfires  were  lighted,  bells 
were  rung,  there  were  public  processions,  and  thanksgiv 
ing  services  were  held  in  the  churches.  Said  Samuel  Adams, 
to  whom  the  result  was  in  large  part  due,  "  The  people 
seem  to  recognize  this  resolution  as  though  it  were  a  decree 
promulgated  from  Heaven." 

1 68.  The  contestants.  It  certainly  required  much  brav 
ery  on  the  part  of  the  Americans  to  cast  loose  from  the 
motherland,  and  to  fight 

so  powerful  a  country. 
At  first  the  chances 
seemed  to  be  much 
against  them. 

Great  Britain  was 
rich,  and  every  one  was 
eager  to  lend  her  money. 
Congress  had  no  money 
of  its  own,  and  no  au 
thority  either  to  levy 
taxes  or  to  borrow.  But 
the  volunteers  must  be 
clothed,  fed,  and  paid, 


u.tr  n  T  ic u  LX D 
Sixtjo fairs. 


Bill 

•fie  Bearer  ta  recei'ue 
Sixty  Spanifh  mill- 
id  DOLLARS, 

•fe  Value  tfereoj*  in 
jold  or  Silvec.  &c- 
•ardingtaa  Refoki- 
hatted  Q 


MONEY   USED   DURING  THE   REVOLU 
TION 

The  full  size  of  this  bill  is  1%  by  3%  inches 


1  In  New  York  City,  the  lead  statue  of  King  George  III  was  melted  into 
bullets  by  the  Revolutionists. 


164  THE  REVOLUTION 

so  there  were  printed  large  quantities  of  so-called  "  paper 
money."  There  was,  however,  so  poor  a  prospect  of  these 
bills  ever  being  redeemed  in  gold  or  silver  that  storekeepers 
often  refused  to  accept  them  for  goods,  and  they  became 
almost  worthless.1 

Great  Britain's  navy  was  then,  as  it  now  is,  the  largest 
in  the  world.  Our  navy  consisted  of  but  a  few  small  vessels. 
The  British  army  was  well  trained,  and  had  everything  ne 
cessary  for  comfort  and  efficiency.  The  colonial  volunteers 
were  at  first  unskilled  and  undisciplined,  and  nearly  always 
were  wretchedly  supplied  and  fed;  except  the  officers  few 
had  uniforms;  and  the  terms  of  enlistment  werg  short.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  most  of  them  were  rugged  pioneer 
farmers,  used  to  hardships  and  dangers,  and  trained  marks 
men.  They  had  led  simple,  earnest,  and  devout  lives,  with 
abundant  exercise  out  of  doors,  and  in  their  hearts  was  a 
deep  faith  in  the  ideas  which  they  upheld.  Gradually  the 
officers  learned  the  business  of  war,  and  on  many  a  hotly 
contested  field  were  valiantly  supported  by  their  men,  who 
had  in  them  the  material  for  making  the  best  of  soldiers. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Locate  Lexington,  Concord,  and  Bunker  Hill  on  a  map  of  the  vicinity 
of  Boston. 

2.  Read  Emerson's  Concord  Hymn.    Explain:  — 

"Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world." 

3.  Read  Holmes's  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill  Battle. 

4.  Show  why  George  Washington  was  best  fitted  to  be  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  armies. 

5.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  colonists  toward  independence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war? 

6.  What  important  strategic  move  was  made  by  Washington  at  Boston? 
As  we  go  on  with  the  history  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  note^other 
similar  movements  of  Washington.   Contrast  the  winning  of  a  victory 
by  strategy  without  battle,  with  winning  one  by  battle. 

1  The  bills  were  called  "continentals,"  because  issued  by  the  Continental 
Congress.  "Not  worth  a  continental"  is  a  phrase  still  often  heard.  In  1781 
it  took  a  thousand  paper  dollars  to  buy  one  silver  dollar.  It  was  many  years 
after  the  Revolution  before  the  country  recovered  from  the  evil  effects  of  these 
floods  of  paper  money. 


DECLARATION   OF  INDEPENDENCE 


165 


7.  State  the  immediate  causes  that  led  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence. 

S.  Read  the  Declaration  in  class  and  note  or  underline  the  passages  that 
show  most  strongly  why  the  colonists  felt  they  were  justified  in  their 
position. 

9.  What  advantages  had  the  Americans  m  the  contest?    What'  disad 
vantages? 
TO.  Contrast  the  purpose  of  King  George  with  that  o<  the  Aifcerfc^hs.  - 

11.  What  events  do  you  associate  with  these  places:  St.  JohnV  Chlrrch, 
Richmond,  Virginia ;  Faneuil  Hall ;  Old  South  Church ;  Concord  Bridge ; 
Old  North  Church;  Washington  Elm,  Cambridge? 

12.  Prepare  a  chronological  table  of  important  Revolutionary  events  in 
the  New  England  section;  thus:  — 

New  England  in  the  Revolution 


Date 

Event 

Names  of  Leaders 

Effect  on  the  Colonists 

13.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

14.  Important  date  —  July  4,  1776.    Declaration  of  Independence. 


COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  thirteen  years  old  on  April  19,  1775,  and  that 
you  live  on  the  road  between  Boston  and  Lexington.    What  wakens 
you  in  the  night?  What  do  you  hear  and  see  during  the  day? 

2.  "What  heroes  from   the  woodland   sprung!"    From  the  suggestion 
in  this  line  by  the  poet  Bryant,  review  the  scene  when  George  Wash 
ington  took  command  of  the  army  at  Cambridge.     Describe  the  land 
scape,  the  commander,  the  onlookers,  and  the  army.   Of  what  sorts  of 
individuals  was  the  army  composed? 

3.  Give  a  conversation  between  a ' '  Tory' '  boy  and  the  son  of  a  "  Patriot." 


CHAPTER  XV 

TWO  YEARS   OF  FIGHTING   IN   THE  MIDDLE   STATES 

169.  The  British  go  to  the  Middle  States.  When  Howe 
evacuated  Boston,  British  military  operations  were,  for  this 
and  the  two  following  additional  reasons,  transferred  from 
New  England  to  the  Middle  States:  - 

(a)  The  Middle  States  people  were  supposed  to  be  more 
loyal  to  the  King  than  were  the  New  Englanders. 

(b)  The  Middle  States  had  more  good  harbors  and  rivers 
than  New  England,  in  which  to  land  troops  and  supplies. 

170.  They  capture  New  York.  The  British  planned  to 
capture  Manhattan  Island.  They  hoped  by  this  means  not 
only  to  make  it  impossible  for  Americans  to  attack  Canada 
over  the  Hudson-Champlain  waterway,  but  to  cut  off  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States  from  any  help  that  they  might 
expect  from  New  England. 

In  the  hope  of  preventing  this,  the  Continental  Army  hur 
ried  to  protect  the  city  of  New  York.  On  August  27,  1776, 
a  sharp  battle  took  place  on  Long  Island,  in  which  Howe's 
forces,  now  twice  as  large  as  Washington's,  and  in  far  better 
condition,  easily  defeated  the  Americans.  Washington 
would  have  been  unwise  to  fight  when  the  odds  against  him 
were  so  great,  so  he  followed  the  methods  often  adopted  by 
the  best  generals,  -when  they  are  outnumbered,  by  seeking  a 
more  secure  position,  whence  he  could  hope  to  worry  the 
enemy  in  some  other  way.1  Under  cover  of  a  dense  fog  he 
successfully  retreated  at  night  across  East  River  with  ten 
thousand  of  his  men.  The  enemy  pressed  him  so  closely,  how 
ever,  that  about  a  fortnight  later  he  felt  obliged  to  evacuate 

t  l  This  waiting  method  is  called  the  "Fabian  policy,"  because  it  was  prac 
ticed  by  a  famous  Roman  general,  Fabius  Maximus. 


1 68  THE   REVOLUTION 

Manhattan  Island   and   retreat  a  short  distance  up  the 
Hudson  River.1 

171.  Washington  retreats  across  New  Jersey.  Having 
taken  New  York,  Howe  next  prepared  to  capture  Phila 
delphia.     Hearing  of  this,  Washington  took  most  of  his 
soldiers  over  into  New  Jersey,  thus  placing  himself  as  a 
barrier  between  the  enemy  and  the  Quaker  capital.    The 
British  followed  him  closely;  but  his  movements  were  more 
rapid  than  theirs,  and  he  burned  bridges  behind  him,  be 
sides  destroying  food  and  such  other  material  along  his  road 
as  might  have  been  useful  to  the  foe.    This  so  delayed  the 
British  that  once  they  were  three  weeks  in  marching  seventy 
miles. 

172.  Battle  of  Trenton.  Nevertheless,  Washington  saw 
that  he  was  not  yet  strong  enough  to  hold  New  Jersey.   He 
had  ordered  General  Charles  Lee  to  join  him,  with  seven 
thousand  soldiers,  from  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson;  but 
that  officer  had  himself  aspired  to  be  commander-in-chief 
and  disobeyed,  apparently  hoping  that  Washington  would 
be  beaten.    On  account  of  this,  the  latter,  early  in  Decem 
ber  (1776),  deemed  it  prudent  to  retreat  across  the  Dela 
ware  River  into  Pennsylvania.     In  doing  so  he  seized  al! 
the  boats  on  this  broad  and  deep  stream,  up  and  clown  for 
a  hundred  miles,  in  order  that  the  enemy  might  not  easily 
follow  him  ;  for  having  no  boats  they  would  have  to  wait 
until  the  river  froze  over,  so  as  to  cross  on  the  ice. 

Over  a  thousand  Hessian  soldiers  were  stationed  at  the  vil 
lage  of  Trenton,  near  the  east  bank,  to  prevent  the  Ameri 
cans  from  returning  into  New  Jersey.  But  their  officers  were 
careless  and  did  not  keep  a  good  watch  of  the  "  rebels," 

1  While  Washington  was  in  New  York,  and  Howe  occupying  the  abandoned 
American  trenches  on  Brooklyn  Heights,  across  the  East  River,  Captain  Na 
than  Hale,  a  talented  and  lovable  young  colonial,  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
was  sent  as  a  spy  into  Howe's  camp,  to  learn  about  the  movements  of  that  gen 
eral.  In  performing  this  duty  he  of  course  ran  a  great  risk,  for  a  spy  caught  in 
the  act  expects,  under  the  rules  of  war,  to  suffer  death.  He  was  captured, 
and  after  somewhat  harsh  treatment  was  hanged  the  following  morning.  Before 
dying,  Hale  declared,  "I  only  regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my  coun 
try." 


FIGHTING   IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES          169 

for  whose  military  ability  they  had  much  contempt.  On 
Christmas  night,  while  the  Hessians  were  feasting,  Wash 
ington  and  his  men  at  great  risk  secretly  recrossed  the 
Delaware,  which  now  wras  filled  with  cakes  of  floating  ice, 
and  in  a  heavy  snowstorm  captured  most  of  the  astonished 
revelers,  together  with  their  valuable  military  supplies. 

173.  The  patriotic  services  of  Robert  Morris.  But  al 
though  Washington  had  won  this  victory,  his  army  was 


Painting  by  Leutze 

WASHINGTON   CROSSING   THE   DELAWARE 

slowly  breaking  up.  The  soldiers  were  poorly  armed, 
clothed,  and  fed,  and  were  not  receiving  their  pay,  upon 
which  their  families  must  be  supported.  Moreover,  the  men 
had  enlisted  for  short  terms,  which  in  most  cases  had  ended ; 
and  worn-out  and  discouraged  they  now  wished  to  return 
to  their  homes. 

At  this  critical  time  there  came  to  the  rescue  a  rich  and 
influential  Philadelphia  merchant  and  banker,  Robert 
Morris,  to  whom  Washington  had  appealed  for  aid.  He  hot 
only  himself  gave  freely  to  the  support  of  the  patriot  army, 
but  went  from  house  to  house  in  that  city  and  borrowed 
money  to  pay  the  poor,  barefooted,  and  half-starved  soldiers. 
He  was  soon  able  to  send  $50,000  to  the  army ;  and  this  sum, 


170 


THE   REVOLUTION 


together  with  what  Washington  was  lending  to  the  Govern 
ment  from  his  own  fortune,  kept  the  forces  together,  by 
restoring  their  confidence  and  inducing  them  to  reenlist. 
After  this,  Morris  ably  managed  all  of  the  money  affairs  of 
the  Revolution. 

174.  Battle  of  Princeton.    Washington's  army  now  fol 
lowed  him  with  zeal,  and  a  few  days  after  the  battle  of 
Trenton  he  was  able  to  surprise  and  defeat  the  enemy  at 
Princeton,  on  January  3,  1777.   The  remainder  of  the  win 
ter  was  spent  comfortably  at  Morristown,  in  northern  New 
Jersey,  where  the  volunteers,  who  now  arrived  in  increased 
numbers  from  the  several  States,  were  carefully  drilled. 

^  At  first,  Washington's  men  had  not  understood  his  cau 
tious  methods  of  waiting  and  watching  for  chances  to  injure 
the  enemy;  but  by  this  time  they  had  gained  confidence  in 
him,  and  all  realized  that  their  leader  was  a  really  great 
general.1 

175.  Distinguished    volunteers    from    Europe.    In  the 

summer  of  1777  Washington  was 
joined  by  several  well-trained 
officers  from  European  armies, 
who  had  obtained  permission  to 
aid  the  Americans.  One  of  these 
was  Baron  Steuben,  of  Prussia, 
a  celebrated  military  engineer, 
who  helped  to  drill  the  raw  Con 
tinentals  and  make  them  over 
into  good  fighting  material.  Oth 
ers  were  Baron  de  Kalb,  a  Ger 
man  veteran  who  came  with  La 
fayette,  and  serv^t  as  a  general, 
and  two  Polj^f^roicers,  Pulaski 
and  Kosciu^zko. 
LAFAYETTE  But  most  noted  of  these  Eu- 

1  Washington's  success  was  partly  due  to  his  being  a  close  and  constant  stu 
dent  of  military  art.  Throughout  the  Revolution,  he  read  as  many  military 
books  as  possible,  and  always  sought  to  test  his  own  ideas  by  those  of  Euro 
pean  generals. 


FIGHTING   IN   THE   MIDDLE  STATES  171 

ropean  volunteers  was  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  a  young 
French  nobleman  but  nineteen  years  old.  Being  made  a 
general  in  our  army,  he  clothed  and  equipped  many  of  the 
men  in  his  command,  and  became  a  warm  friend  of  Wash 
ington  and  of  the  United  States.  During  the  war,  and 
until  his  death  long  years  afterward,  he  was  idolized  by 
our  people,  who  admired  his  frank,  winning  manners,  and 
his  democratic  ideas.1 

176.  Burgoyne  Js  surrender.  Although  Washington  and 
the  greater  part  of  his  army  had  left  the  Hudson  River  in 
1776,  Howe  had  not  as  yet  been  able  to  control  the  Hudson- 
Champlain  route  to  Canada,  for  Ticonderoga  was  still  in  the 
hands  of  the  Americans.  But  in  the  summer  of  1777  General 
Burgoyne,  of  the  British  army,  at  the  head  of  nearly  ten 
thousand  regulars,  besides  many  Loyalists  and  Indians, 
came  south  from  Canada  and  captured  the  famous  fortress. 

Burgoyne  had  expected  to  be  joined  on  the  Hudson  River 
by  two  other  British  expeditions  —  one  was  to  have  come  up 
the  rivet  from  Manhattan  Island  under  Howe  himself; 
another,  consisting  of  Indians  and  Loyalists  under  Colonel 
St.  Leger,  was  to  march  from  Oswego  down  the  valley  of 
the  Mohawk  River.  Had  these  three  columns  joined  as 
planned,  no  doubt  they  would  have  been  able  to  capture 
the  entire  route  between  New  York  Bay  and  the  St.  Law 
rence  River,  and  thus  sever  New  England  from  the  rest  of 
the  country.  If  that  had  been  done,  the  American  States 
could  not  then  have  all  united  'in  helping  each  other,  and 
the  Revolutionary  cause  would  probably  have  failed  then 
and  there. 

But  through  some  mischance  Howe  failed  to  receive  his 
orders  from  England  to  assist  Burgoyne,  so  did  not  go  north- 

1  Lafayette  was  born  in  i«7,  of  a  family  long  distinguished  in  French  his 
tory.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  where  he  also  became 
a  general;  but  in  the' French  Revolution  he  was  not  radical  enough  to  suit 
its  leaders,  and  fled  to  Belgium.  He  passed  several  years  in  political  prisons  in 
Austria,  and  suffered  greatly.  When  Napoleon  won,  he  was  set  free  and  again 
became  prominent  in  France.  In  1824-25  he  revisited  the  United  States  by 
invitation  of  Congress,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  great  enthusiasm. 
Ten  years  later  he  died  in. Paris. 


172 


THE   REVOLUTION 


ward  to  meet  him;  and  St.  Leger,  while  laying  siege  to  Fort 
Schuyler,1  was  defeated  in  a  fierce  ambush  near  Oriskany, 
by  a  body  of  buckskin-clad  backwoods  riflemen  under  Gen 
eral  Herkimer. 

Burgoyne  was  thus  left  alone  to  grapple  with  the  Ameri 
cans,  and  soon  found  himself  surrounded  by  great  numbers 

of  New  England 
volunteers,2  who 
obliged  him  to 
surrender  near 
|  Saratoga,  on  Oc 
tober  17,  with  the 
last  vestige  of  his 
army.  There  had 
been  killed  or 
captured  in  this 
campaign,  from 
Ticonderoga  to 
Saratoga,  about 
a  third  of  all  the 
King's  troops 
then  in  America.3 
Many  military  experts  in  Europe  had  closely  watched  this 
campaign  for  cutting  off  New  England  from  the  rest  of  the 
country.  When  it  failed,  they  believed  that,  under  so  per 
sistent  and  competent  a  commander  as  Washington,  the 
Americans  'had  now  a  fair  chance  to  win,  if  only  they  could 
hold  out  long  enough. 

177.  Battles  of  Brandy  wine  and   Germantown.  While 

1  Fort  Schuyler,  formerly  called  Fort  Stanwix,  at  what  is  now  Rome,  New 
York,  had  the  honor,  in  this  campaign,  of  being,  probably,  the  first  fort  to  fly 
the  "  Stars  and  Stripes  "  of  the  new  nation,  on  August  3,  1777.    The  first  regular 
battle  fought  under  the  new  flag  was  Brandywine. 

2  While  .Burgoyne  was  struggling  through  the  wilderness  south  of  Lake 
Champlain,  he  sent  a  thousand  of  his  men  to  Bennington,  Vermont,  to  capture 
supplies.   This  foraging  expedition  was  attacked  by  a  body  of  frontier  farmers 
under  Colonel  John  Stark,  who  killed  or  captured  nearly  nine  hundred  of  the 
redcoats. 

3  The  historian  Creasy  calls  the  engagement  near  Saratoga  one  of  the  fifteen 
decisive  battles  of  the  world. 


Painting  by  F.  C.  Yokn.    Courtesy,  Glens  Falls  Tnstt 

THE  SURRENDER  OF  BURGOYXE 


FIGHTING   IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES          173 

these  important  events,  which  he  directed  from  a  distance, 
were  taking  place  in  the  North,  Washington  himself  was 
having  bad  fortune.  He  had  outwitted  the  British  in  New 
Jersey,  so  that  they  had  failed  to  reach  Philadelphia  by 
marching  across  that  State.  But  now  came  news  that 
Howe  had  landed  seventeen  thousand  men  from  ships,  at  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  intended  to  march  overland 


THE   AMERICAN    ENCAMPMENT  AT  VALLEY   FORGE 

from  that  point  to  Philadelphia,  where  Congress  was  then 
assembled. 

Washington  hurried  to  the  defense  of  that  body,  but  his 
troops  were  just  then  in  poor  condition,  and  he  met  defeat 
on  Brandy  wine  Creek,  September  10,  1777.  Two  weeks  later 
the  British  entered  Philadelphia  and  soon  secured  control  of 
the  Delaware  River,  up  which  they  could  now  bring  their 
ships  direct  to  the  town.  The  Americans  tried  to  drive  out 
the  invaders  from  the  suburb  of  Germantown,  but  were 
again  repulsed. 

The  season  now  being  late,  Washington  felt  obliged  to  go 
into  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  a  hilly  region  about 
twenty  miles  northwest  of  the  city. 


174  THE  REVOLUTION 

178.  The  dreadful  winter  at  Valley  Forge.  Howe  and  his 
officers  had  a  gay  season  in  Philadelphia,  where  the  Loyal 
ists  freely  opened  their  houses  to  them,  and  gave  dinners  and 
balls  in  their  honor.    In  striking  contrast,  Washington  and 
his  army  were  suffering  severely  on  their  cheerless  hillsides. 
They  passed  the  long  and  harsh  winter  in  rude  log  huts, 
with  insufficient  fuel,  clothing,  and  food,  and  were  the  mis 
erable  victims  of  camp  diseases,  caused  by  poor  nourishment 
and  unsanitary  conditions. 

When  the  British  were  approaching  Philadelphia,  the  au 
tumn  previous,  Congress  had  fled  first  to  Lancaster;  then  to 
York,  where  several  of  its  members  formed  a  conspiracy  to 
remove  Washington,  whom  they  charged  with  incompetency , 
because  he  so  often  retreated,  and  to  put  in  his  place  General 
Gates.  These  men  did  not  then  understand,  as  the  best  of 
the  soldiers  did,  that  Washington's  courage,  patriotism, 
self-sacrifice,  and  wisdom,  as  well  as  his  military  genius, 
were  the  real  backbone  of  the  Revolution.1 

During  these  sad  months  at  Valley  Forge  the  great  Vir 
ginian  was  feeding  his  comrades  at  his  own  expense,  and 
trying  to  drill  the  new  recruits  to  become  efficient  soldiers. 
Although  he  seldom  lost  his  patience,  he  did  so  at  this  time, 
and  from  his  dreary  camp  wrote  indignantly,  "  Two  thou 
sand  eight  hundred  and  ninety-eight  men  are  unfit  for  duty 
because  they  arc  barefoot  or  otherwise  naked.  It  is  a  much 
easier  thing  to  draw  remonstrances  in  a  comfortable  room, 
by  a  good  fireside,  than  to  occupy  a  cold,  bleak  hill,  and 
sleep  under  frost  and  snow  without  blankets." 

179.  France  aids  the  United  States.  After  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  Congress  had  sent  to 
France  three  commissioners,  headed  by  Franklin,  who  was 
now  famous  in  Europe  as  a  scientist  and  public  man,  to  ask 
England's  ancient  enemy   to  aid  the  Americans  in  their 
struggle  for  independence.    The  French  hesitated  at  first, 

1  This  conspiracy  is  called  in  history  the  "Conway  cabal,"  because  it  was 
managed  by  General  Conway,  a  meddlesome  French  officer,  who  was  disap 
pointed  because  Washington  did  not  want  him  promoted.  Conway  resigned  in 
1778,  and  returned  to  France. 


FIGHTING   IN  THE  MIDDLE  STATES 


175 


because  it  was  hardly  worth  while,  they  said,  for  France  to 
waste  her  energies  in  aiding  a  fight  that  seemed  sure  to  be 
lost.  After  Burgoyne's  surrender,  however,  the  outlook  was 
more  hopeful,  and  in  1778  France  signed  a  treaty  by  which 
she  recognized  the  United  States  as  an  independent  nation, 
and  agreed  to  lend  her  troops  and  money.1 

180.  England   offers   peace.  Great    Britain    was   much 
alarmed  at  this  turn  of  affairs,  and  at  once  declared  war 


THE  EVOLUTION   OF  THE  AMERICAN   FLAGS 

against  our  ally,  for  interfering  in  her  "  family  quarrel." 
At  the  same  time  Parliament  offered  us  peace,  and  said  that 
we  might  now,  if  we  wished,  send  representatives  to  sit  in 
that  body;  moreover,  it  promptly  repealed  all  of  the  tax 

1  There  were  two  parts  to  this  treaty :  by  the  first,  France  declared  her 
friendship  for  the  United  States ;  by  the  second,  France  offered  to  aid  us  in  case 
Great  Britain  declared  war  against  her. 

2  The  flag  on  the  left  is  the  British  ensign.    The  union  jack  in  the  corner  is  a 
combination  of  the  English  red  cross  of  St.  George  with  the  Scottish  white  cross 
of  St.  Andrew,  upon  a  blue  ground. 

The  flag  on  the  right  is  the  one  used  by  General  Washington,  at  Cambridge, 
in  January,  1776,  and  for  a  year  or  more  afterward.  It  is  like  the  British  ensign 
except  that  thirteen  red  and  white  stripes  (representing  the  thirteen  revolting 
colonies)  are  substituted  for  the  solid  red  of  the  former. 

The  flag  at  the  top  was  adopted  by  Congress  Jurte  14,  1777.  A  union  of 
thirteen  white  stars  in  a  circle  on  a  blue  ground  is  substituted  for  the  British 
union.  The  present  American  flag  differs  from  this  in  the  number  and  arrange 
ment  of  stars;  one  has  been  added  for  each  new  State,  so  that  there  are  now 
forty-eight.  June  14  of  each  year  is  now  called  "  Flag  Day,"  and  this  anniversary 
is  celebrated  in  many  of  the  States, 


176  THE  REVOLUTION 

laws  and  other  regulations  that  had  so  offended  the  Ameri 
cans.  But  it  was  now  too  late  for  any  other  offer  than 
complete  independence.  The  United  States  had  become  a 
nation;  and,  having  tasted  freedom,  wished  no  longer  to  be 
tied  to  the  apron  strings  of  the  motherland;  moreover,  it 
would  not  be  fair  to  make  peace  without  the  consent  of  her 
ally,  France.  Accordingly,  Congress  rejected  the  overtures 
from  London,  and  the  war  continued. 

181.  Battle  of  Monmouth.  There  were  at  that  time  fifteen 
thousand  British  soldiers  in  Philadelphia.  But  having  heard 
that  a  French  fleet  was  on  its  way  across  the  Atlantic  to 
bombard  them,  they  left  that  city  hurriedly,  crossed  the 
Delaware  River,  and  started  to  march  eastward  across  New 
Jersey  to  New  York.    Washington  was  quickly  upon  their 
trail,  with  his  now  fairly  well-organized  army  of  about  the 
same  size.     He  fell  upon  their  rear  guard  at  Monmouth, 
June  28,  and  would  have  annihilated  them  had  he  been 
properly  supported  by  General  Charles  Lee.      But  that 
officer  was  so  obstinate  and  disobedient  that  Washington 
sharply  rebuked  him  and  ordered  him  to  the  rear.     The 
battle  was  severe,  but  owing  to  Lee's  conduct  was  indecisive.1 
Later,  Lee  was  tried  by  court  martial  and  dismissed  from 
the  army  in  disgrace. 

182.  Watching  the  British.  The  British  troops,  who  had 
suffered  great  losses,  now  continued  on  their  way  to  New 
York,  which  they  held  until  the  war  closed ;  but  Washing 
ton,  who  once  more  occupied  the  highlands  of  the  Hudson, 
a  short  distance  above  the  city,  watched  them  closely,  to 
see  that  they  did  not  penetrate  too  far  into  the  interior 
of  the  country. 

After  two  years  fighting  in  the  Middle  States  the  pros 
pects  for  the  patriots  had  much  improved.  The  victory 

1  It  was  a  very  hot  day,  96°  in  the  shade,  and  many  men  on  both  sides  died 
simply  from  overwork  in  the  fierce  sun.  The  fighting  spirit  of  the  Americans 
is  shown  in  the  case  of  a  brave  woman  who  was  called  "Moll  Pitcher,"  although 
her  real  name  was  Mary  Hays.  Her  husband  was  a  cannoneer,  and  she  as 
sisted  him  as  best  she  could.  When  he  fell  dead,  she  took  up  his  work,  and 
*mid  the  cheers  of  her  comrades  served  in  his  place  through  the  rest  of  the 
pattle. 


FIGHTING    IN   THE   MIDDLE  STATES  177 

over  Burgoyne  had  brightened  their  hopes,  the  French  al 
liance  added  greatly  to  their  strength,  and  Washington's 
army  was  now  much  better  trained  and  equipped  than 
before. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  the  British  leave  New  England  and  transfer  the  war  to  the 
Middle  States? 

2.  State  how  Washington  was  aided  by  Robert  Morris,  Lafayette,  and 
Baron  Steuben. 

3.  Why  was  the  battle  near  Saratoga  called  a  " decisive  battle"?    What 
other  decisive  battle  occurred  in  North  America  nearly  twenty  years 
before? 

4.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  American  flag  and  tell  what  each  part 
of  it  signifies. 

5.  On  a  sketch  map  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  indicate  American 
victories  with  blue  crosses;  defeats  with  red  ones. 

6.  Explain  the  many  American  successes  in  spite  of  their  inferior  equip 
ment. 

7.  Relate  important  events  of  Washington's  career  as  a  general,  mentioned 
in  this  chapter. 

8.  Prepare  a  chronological  table  of  important  Revolutionary  events  in 
the  Middle  States,  thus:  - 

The  Middle  States  in  the  Revolution 


Date 

Event 

Names  of  Leaders 

Effect  on  the  Colonists 

9.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  what  purports  to  be  a  translation  of  three  entries  in  the  diary 
of  a  Hessian  officer.    Let  the  dates  be  December.  24,  December  25, 
and  December  26,  1776. 

2.  Write  out  a  conversation  between  Robert  Morris  and  a  patriot  at 
whose  house  he  begged  for  money;  another  one  with  a  man  who  was 
doubtful  about  joining  the  army  because  uncertain  as  to  the  possibility 
of  success 

3.  Washington  at  Valley  Forge,  as  described  by  the  poet  Lowell :  — 

"Dumb  for  himself,  unless  it  were  to  God, 
But  for  his  barefoot  soldiers  eloquent, 
Tramping  the  snow  to  coral  where  they  trod, 
Held  by  his  awe  in  hollow-eyed  content." 


CHAPTER  XVI 

CLOSING   YEARS   OF   THE    REVOLUTION 

183.  Indian  depredations.  Throughout  the  war  the  Amer 
ican  settlers  along  our  northern  and  western  borders  suf 
fered  severely  from  Indian  raids,  which  were  often  led  by 
Loyalists.  The  most  cruel  of  these  were  in  1778,  when  the 
people  of  Wyoming,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Cherry  Valley, 
in  New  York,  were  horribly  massacred  by  the  savage  allies 
of  the  British. 

The  settlers  of  Kentucky  were  so  often  troubled  by  the 
Indian  war  parties  which  were  sent  out  by  the  British  com 
mandants  of  Detroit  and  other  posts  north  of  the  Ohio 
River  that  for  several  years  their  little  towns  needed  the 
constant  protection  of  blockhouse  forts.  Through  this  long 
practice  in  defending  their  homes  the  Kentuckians  became 
expert  riflemen,  and  were  the  most  successful  Indian  fighters 
in  the  country.1 

^  184.  The  brilliant  services  of  George  Rogers  Clark. 
George  Rogers  Clark,  a  tall,  hardy,  and  fearless  young  Ken 
tucky  surveyor,  determined  in  1778  to  put  a  stop  to  these 
savage  assaults,  by  driving  out  all  of  the  British  garrisons 
lying  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  He  enlisted  a  hundred 
and  fifty  of  the  most  daring  backwoodsmen  he  could  find, 
and  with^this  little  army  soon  captured  Kaskaskia  and 
Cahokia  in  western  Illinois.  In  order  to  take  Vincennes,  in 
western  Indiana,  he  was  obliged  to  make  a  long  journey  over 
land;  and  in  doing  so  he  had  a  thrilling  experience.  This 
was  early  in  1779,  when  the  Wabash  and  other  rivers  in 
that  region  were  swollen  by  spring  floods  and  the  marsh 

1  The  best-known  Kentuckian  was  Daniel  Boone,  a  hunter  and  land  sur 
veyor.  He  first  visited  Kentucky  (from  North  Carolina)  in  1 769,  and  much  of  his 
lite  thereafter  was  filled  with  perilous  adventures. 


CLOSING   YEARS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION       179 

lands  were  overflowed.  The  patriots  were  obliged,  with  little 
food  and  almost  no  rest,  to  march  for  long  distances  through 
ice-cold  water  that  often  reached  the  shoulders  of  tall  men, 
and  they  suffered  all  manner  of  hardships.  But  although 

exhausted  from  fatigue  and _^ 

exposure,  they  at  last  reached 
their  goal,  surprised  the  Brit 
ish,  and  after  a  sharp  fight 
captured  Vincennes. 

This  splendid  victory  put 
Clark  in  possession  of  nearly 
all  the  country  north  of  the 
Ohio  River,  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi;  and  now  that 


\ 


THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  GEORGE 
ROGERS  CLARK 


the  British  were  driven  out, 
Kentucky  had  little  more 
trouble  from  Indians. 

185.  The  storming  of  Stony  Point.  During  the  summer 
of  1779  the  British  remained  well  fortified  in  New  York, 
and  at  the  same  time  captured  two  American  forts  on  the 
Hudson  River,  Stony  Point  and  Verplancks  Point.     But 
Washington,  who  was  then  encamped   in   the  highlands, 
resolved  to  regain  the  bold  promontory  of  Stony  Point, 
and  for  this  difficult  feat  chose  the  impetuous  and  daring 
General  Anthony  Wayne.    At  the  head  of  twelve  hundred 
picked  men,  who  carried  no  ammunition  but  had  their  bayo 
nets  set,  Wayne  made  his  assault  on  July  15,  and  swept 
everything  before  him. 

186.  The  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  General  Benedict 
Arnold  had  been  one  of  .our  most  courageous  and  experienced 
officers.    He  had  won  laurels  at  the  battles  of  Quebec  and 
Saratoga,  and  was  much  beloved  by  Washington.    But  he 
was  disappointed  because  some  of  his  political  enemies  in 
Congress  prevented  him  from  being  promoted.    On  being 
placed  in  command  of  West  Point,  then  the  most  important 
fortress  in  the  United  States,  he  determined  to  revenge  him 
self  on  Congress  and  surrender  the  fort  to  the  British. 


i8o  THE   REVOLUTION 

As  a  reward  for  this  treason  the  latter  promised  to  give 
him  a  large  sum  of  money  and  make  him  a  general  in  the 
King's  army.  An  accomplished  and  popular  English  officer, 
Major  Andre,  was  sent  to  meet  Arnold  and  complete  the 
bargain.  But  in  trying  to  regain  the  British  lines,  near  Tarry- 
town,  Andre  was  arrested  by  some  American  pickets,  and 
the  papers  on  his  person  disclosed  the  wretched  plot.  He 
was  hanged  as  a  spy,  but  Arnold  escaped  to  a  British  war- 
vessel.  Twenty-one  years  later,  Arnold,  who  had  in  the 
meantime  served  as  a  British  general,  died  in  England,  dis 
graced,  in  poverty,  and  embittered  by  remorse.1 

187.  John  Paul  Jones  and  the  privateers.  There  were 
plenty  of  gallant  sailors  in  the  American  colonies,  especially 
among  the  New  England  fishermen,  who  manned  many  small 
vessels;  but  the  regular  navy  was  at  first  small.  Private 
shipowners  were  therefore  given  authority  to  "  distress  the 
enemies  of  the  United  States  by  sea  or  land,"  and  to  take 
their  pay  from  the  sale  of  the  prizes  that  they  captured. 
These  "  privateers,"  as  they  were  known,  ranged  up  and 
down  our  own  coast  and  into  Canadian  and  West  Indian 
waters,  and  in  their  boldness  were  frequently  within  sight 
of  the  British  Isles  themselves.  They  were  able  to  take 
or  destroy  hundreds  of  the  enemy's  merchant  ships,  and 
thus  do  great  damage  to  his  commerce.2 

The  most  famous  of  our  naval  officers  wras  John  Paul 
Jones,  who,  after  a  long  and  exciting  career  in  his  little  ship 

1  It  is  told  that  when  death  approached,  he  said  to  his  family:  "Bring  me, 
I  beg  you,  the  epaulettes  and  sword-knots  which  Washington  gave  me;  let 
me  die  in  my  old  American  uniform,  the  uniform  in  which  I  fought  my  battles. 
God  forgive  me  for  ever  putting  on  any  other." 

2  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  had  about  -five  hundred  ships  each,  in 
this  service.  It  is  thought  that  at  one  time  70,000  Americans  were  engaged  in  th« 
work. 

The  first  captain  thus  to  carry  our  flag  and  win  prizes  within  sight  of  the 
British  coast  was  Lambert  Wickes. 

John  Barry  in  the  Alliance  had  numerous  fierce  encounters  with  the  enemy 
and  successfully  cruised  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Once  this  stout-hearted 
patriot,  who  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  was  offered  $100,000  and  the  command 
of  a  British  frigate  if  he  would  return  to  the  allegiance  of  the  motherland ;  but  he 
indignantly  replied,  "Not  the  value  and  command  of  the  whole  British  fleet 
can  seduce  me  from  the  cause  of  my  country." 


CLOSING  YEARS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION        181 


Ranger,  was,  after  the  alliance  with  France,  given  charge  of 
five  vessels  that  had  been  a  part  of  the  French  navy.  His 
own  vessel,  the  flagship  of  this  fleet,  was  called  Bon  Homme 
Richard.1  On  the  evening  of  September  23,  1779,  when  off 
Flamborough  Head,  in  northeastern  England,  the  flagship 
engaged  the  British  frigate  Serapis  in  a  desperate  hand-to- 
hand  combat.  This  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  fights 
in  the  history  of 
naval  warfare, 
and  lasted  until 
half-past  ten  at 
night.  It  ended 
in  the  surrender 
of  the  Serapis. 
Each  vessel  lost 
more  than  half  of 
her  men  in  killed 
and  wounded, 
and  two  days 
later  the  Bon 
Homme  Richard 
sank,  having 
been  riddled  by  THE  BON 
cannon  shot,  but 
her  crew  escaped 
to  the  captured  English  frigate.  Jones  at  once  became  a  pop 
ular  hero  both  in  France  and  America.2  The  British,  long 
supposed  to  be  masters  of  the  sea,  felt  much  humiliated  at 
being  thus  beaten  almost  within  gunshot  of  their  own  shores. 
188.  The  British  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  At  first 
the  British  had  tried  to  conquer  New  England,  but  had  been 
driven  out.  In  the  Middle  Colonies  they  were  not  meeting 

1  A  pet  name  given  by  the  French  to  Franklin,  because  of  his  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac,  mentioned  in  note  on  p.  126. 

2  The  location  of  his  grave,  long  unknown,  was  finally  discovered  in  Paris, 
in  March,  1905.   His  remains  were  removed  to  this  country  in  July  following, 
under  an  escort  of  United  States  war- vessels,  and  now  rest  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  Annapolis,  Maryland. 


Painting  hy  Paton 

HOMME    RICHARD  AND   THE   SERAPIS 


The  ship  at  the  right  is  one  of  Jones's  allies.    Her  captain  was  accused 
of  treacherously  firing  upon  the  Bon  Homme  Richard 


182  THE   REVOLUTION 

with  marked  success.  In  1778,  therefore,  they  transferred 
the  seat  of  war  to  the  South,  under  the  charge  of  Generals 
Clinton  and  Cornwallis.  The  many  Loyalists  in  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina  hastened  to  their  support,  and  soon  those 
two  States  seemed  to  be  completely  under  British  control. 
It  now  began  to  look  as  though  the  Americans  had  lost  the 
entire  South,  and  many  half-hearted  people  in  that  region 
hastened  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  King.  Clinton  now  con 
tentedly  returned  to  New  York  and  left  Cornwallis  in  charge, 

189.  Greene  wins  victories.  Washington  said  he  did  not 
propose  to  let  the  enemy  keep  the  South;  but  against  his 
will,  Congress  sent  General  Gates  to  take  command  in  that 
section.  There,  as  elsewhere,  however,  Gates  proved  ineffi 
cient  and  cowardly,  and  was  badly  defeated  in  a  fight  at 
Camden,  South  Carolina,  August  1 6,  1780. 

General  Greene  succeeded  Gates.  He  was  a  brilliant 
soldier,  whom  many  historians  place  next  to  Washington  in 
ability.  The  new  commander  soon  began  to  win  victories 
for  the  patriots.  Just  previous,  however,  to  his  arrival  in 
the  South,  fortune  turned  in  favor  of  the  patriots  at  King's 
Mountain,  on  the  border  between  North  and  South  Caro 
lina.  In  this  battle,  October  7,  1780,  the  hardy  frontiers 
men  of  that  region  stubbornly  drove  off  the  enemy. 
f?  Another  British  disaster  took  place  at  the  Cowpens,  in 
South  Carolina,  where,  on  January  17, 178 1 ,  General  Morgan 
gallantly  captured  the  greater  part  of  an  army  headed  by 
Tarleton,  one  of  Cornwallis's  best  cavalry  officers. 

Washington  now  planned  to  entice  the  British  army 
northward,  if  possible,  to  the  seacoast  of  Virginia,  where 
the  French  fleet  could  aid  in  attacking  them.  He  there 
fore  sent  orders  to  Greene  to  retreat  slowly  through  North 
Carolina,  and  lead  the  enemy  after  him.  This  was  so  cleverly 
done  that  Cornwallis  supposed  he  was  driving  Greene  be 
fore  him,  and  several  sharp  battles  were  fought  between 
them  on  the  way.1 

1  The  most  important  of  these  was  at  Gtiilford  Court-Bouse,  North  Carolina 
(March  15),  where  Cornwallis  lost  a  fourth  of  his  array,  a,n.d  Greene  displayed 
great  courage  and  efficiency. 


CLOSING  YEARS   OF  THE   REVOLUTION        183 

190.  Marion,  Sumter,  and   "Light-horse  Harry "  Lee. 

While  these  principal  events  were  in  progress,  there  was  also 
severe  fighting,  on  a  smaller  scale,  at  many  other  points  in 
the  South.  The  Southern  frontiersmen,  who  had  neither 
discipline  nor  uniforms,  and  carried  the  crudest  kind  of  weap 
ons,  Were  called  "  rangers."  They  fought  independently 
of  the  Continental  army,  and  their  principal  leaders  were 
Generals  Marion  and  Sumter.  Hiding  in  swamps,  deep 
forests,  or  mountain  glens,  the  rangers  would  suddenly 
pounce  upon  the  enemy,  and  after  crushing  him  quickly 
disappear  from  view,  to  be  next  met,  when  least  expected, 
at  some  far-distant  point.  Their  marches  were  surprisingly 
rapid,  and  they  suffered  great  hardships  from  heat  and  cold, 
generally  sleeping  without  cover  and  often  going  hungry 
for  days.  Stories  of  their  bravery,  endurance,  and  thrilling 
adventures  are  still  told  by  the  people  of  Georgia  and  the 
Carolinas. 

Local  cavalry  leaders  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  South 
ern  campaigns.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  Colonel 
Henry  Lee,1  known  as  "  Light-horse  Harry,"  whose  swift- 
moving  "  legion  "  did  splendid  work  for  Greene. 

191.  The  British   surrender   at   Yorktown.    Cornwallis 
was  much  annoyed  that  he  could  not  catch  the  wary  Greene. 
So  he  settled  down  at  Yorktown,  on  a  narrow  neck  of  land 
near  the  mouth  of  York  River,  and  sent  for  reinforcements, 
which  were  to  come  by  sea,  both  from  New  York  and  the 
West  Indies.    He  thought  that  from  this  point  he  might 
by  brilliant  dashes  easily  finish  the  conquest  of  the  South 
and  thus  end  the  war. 

Cornwallis  was  probably  the  ablest  English  general  then 
in  America,  but  he  soon  learned  that  the  watchful  "rebels  " 
were  more  sagacious  than  he.  To  his  chagrin  he  found  that 
the  gallant  and  youthful  Lafayette  had  skillfully  cut  off 
his  retreat  by  land;  and  the  promised  naval  aid  did  not 
arrive.  Instead,  there  now  came  to  him  ominous  reports  of 

1  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  the  Confederate  leader  during  the  Civil  War  (see 
page  346),  was  the  son  of  this  Revolutionary  soldier. 


184  THE  REVOLUTION 

the  approach  into  Chesapeake  Bay  of  a  large  fleet  of  French 
war-vessels  under  Count  de  Grasse. 

Meanwhile,  Washington,  who  was  still  on  the  Hudson 
River,  made  a  pretense  of  preparing  to  attack  Clinton  in 
New  York,  and  thus  kept  that  general  at  home,  busily  look 
ing  after  his  defenses.  When  all  was  ready  the  American 
leader  quietly  slipped  away  with  a  large  part  of  his  men, 
marched  southward  to  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  then 
sailed  on  the  French  vessels  to  Yorktown,  to  catch  Corn- 
wallis  in  a  trap.  It  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  movements 
in  all  military  history,  and  had  been  completed  before  the 
unsuspecting  Clinton  understood  what  was  going  on.1 

The  astonished  Cornwallis  attempted  to  escape,  but  in 
vain,  for  he  was  completely  hemmed  in.  The  French  fleet, 
now  lying  off  Yorktown,  cut  off  all  help  that  he  might  ex 
pect  from  the  sea;  and  on  the  land  side  there  was  a  hostile 
army  of  sixteen  thousand  men.2  The  brave  and  determined 
British  general  stood  out  for  seventeen  days  against  almost 
hourly  storms  of  American  and  French  shells  and  cannon- 
balls.  But  on  October  19,  1781,  he  was  forced  to  surren 
der.3 

Seldom  had  soldiers  of  England  been  so  completely 
beaten.  Washington's  small  army  of  villagers  and  farm 
ers  had  had  little  practice  in  the  art  of  war  and  lacked 
proper  equipment,  clothing,  and  food,  but  they  had  ex 
cellent  officers,  and  were  fighting  for  their  homes  and  the 
freedom  of  their  country,  facts  which  in  war  always  count 
for  a  great  deal.  Without  the  aid  of  the  French,  however, 
Yorktown  could  not  have  been  won. 

192.  News  of  the  surrender.  In  an  early  hour  of  October 

1  Clinton  hoped  to  draw  Washington  back  to  New  York  by  sending  the  traitor 
Arnold  to  raid  towns  on  the  Connecticut  coast ;  but  after  he  had  done  much  dam 
age,  local  militiamen  drove  the  invaders  back  to  their  ships. 

2  Americans,  nine  thousand;  French,  seven  thousand. 

3  The  story  has  been  told  that  just  before  the  hour  fixed  for  the  British  army 
to  come  from  behind  their  breastworks  and  lay  down  their  ^arms,  Washington 
addressed  his  soldiers,  saying:   "My  boys,  let  there  be  no  insults  over  a  con 
quered  foe!  When  they  lay  down  their  arms,  don't  huzza;  posterity  will  huzza 

.  for  you !" 


CLOSING   YEARS  OF  THE   REVOLUTION        185 

24,  the  usually  quiet  streets  of  Philadelphia  rang  with  the 
clatter  of  a  galloping  horse,  bearing  the  messenger  whom 
Washington  had  sent  to  carry  the  splendid  news  to  Congress. 
Soon  the  night  watchman,  pacing  sleepily  upon  his  rounds, 
was  crying  in  drawling  tone,  "  Past  three  o'clock,  and  Corn- 
wallis  is  taken!"  Windows  and  doors  were  quickly  thrown 
open,  men  shouted  to  each  other  to  wake  up  the  town, 


Painting  by  Trumbull 

THE   SURRENDER   OF   CORNWALLIS 


s  the  Capitol' 


The  painting  represents  the  moment  when  officers  of  the  British  army,  conducted  by  General  Lincoln, 
are  passing  between  the  lines  of  the  French  on  one  side  and  the  Americans  on  .the  other 

bells  clanged  noisily,  and  until  dawn  the  streets  were  filled 
with  a  joyous  people,  now  eager  to  shout  the  praises  of  the 
brave  and  energetic  Washington. 

The  report  spread  quickly  to  other  cities  and  towns, 
where  bonfires  soon  blazed  on  the  greens,  residences  were 
alight  with  candles  in  the  windows,  processions  of  people 
marched  and  sang,  and  orators  gave  voice  to  patriotic 
sentiments. 

193.  The  effect  in  England.  A  month  later,  November 


186  THE   REVOLUTION 

27,  the  Prime  Minister  of  Great  Britain,  Lord  Northv  re 
ceived  the  sorrowful  news.  Shaken  with  excitementv  he 
cried,  wildly,  "  It  is  all  over!  It  is  all  over!  "  King  George 
blustered,  and  talked  of  abdicating,  but  later  said  that  he 
was  glad  enough  to  be  rid  of  these  troublesome  Americans. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  many  English  sympathizers  with 
our  country  openly  rejoiced ;  and  Paris  itself  was  never  gayer, 
for  the  French  fleet  had  enabled  the  Americans  to  win  a 
brilliant  victory  in  behalf  of  human  liberty. 

In  time  the  Revolution  brought  greater  freedom  to  Eng 
lishmen  as  well  as  to  Americans,  and  in  all  parts  of  Europe 
it  encouraged  the  friends  of  democracy.  Thus  was  the  con 
test  a  turning-point  in  the  history  of  European  as  well  as 
American  liberty. 

194.  The  treaty  of  peace,  and  evacuation  of  New  York. 
When  Parliament  met,  in  1782,  King  George  declared  to  its 
members,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  that  he  was  at  last  willing 
to  have  his  American  colonies  form  an  independent  nation ; 
but  he  generously  hoped  that  "  religion,  interest,  and  affec 
tion  might  prove  a  bond  of  permanent  union  between  the 
two  countries." 

The  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  was  signed  at  Paris  on  September  3,  1783.  To  our 
nation  was  granted  the  wrhole  region  lying  east  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  River,  south  of  Canada,  and  north  of  Florida  — 
which  latter  country,  then  including  parts  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  Great  Britain  had  returned  to 
Spain.1 

When  the  news  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty  reached  New- 
York,  the  British  army,  which  had  continued  to  occupy 
Manhattan  Island,  returned  to  England.  Thereupon  Wash 
ington  and  his  troops  marched  into  the  city  (November  25, 
1783),  and  the  day  and  night  were  given  up  to  bonfires, 
fireworks,  and  a  farewell  dinner  to  those  of  the  American 

1  During  the  last  two  years  of  the  Revolution,  Spain,  which  was  engaged  in  the 
same  general  European  war  as  was  France,  aided  the  United  States  by  captur 
ing  Natchez,  Mobile,  Pensacola,  and  other  British  settlements  in  the  far  South. 


CLOSING   YEARS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION       187 


Painting  by  Trumbull  in  the  Capitol 

WASHINGTON    RESIGNING   HIS   COMMISSION 

officers  who  were  anxious  to  leave  for  their  homes  as  soon 
as  possible.1 

IQ5-  Washington's  farewell.  After  affectionately  bidding 
his  fellow  officers  good-bye  at  New  York, 2  Washington  went 
in  December  to  Annapolis,  where  Congress  was  then  sit- 

1  Failure  to  get  their  pay  had  made  many  of  the  soldiers  discontented  and 
mutinous. 

In  the  spring  of  1782,  some  of  the  officers  attempted  to  make  Washington 
the  king  of  the  new  nation,  but  he  severely  reprimanded  them. 

In  March,  1783,  he  nipped  in  the  bud  another  military  scheme  to  seize  the 
government  until  the  army  should  be  paid.  In  June  following,  several  hundred 
drunken  soldiers,  shouting  for  their  wages,. drove  Congress  from  Philadelphia 
to  Princeton.  Later  in  the  year,  Washington's  influence  alone  prevented  the 
army  rising  in  rebellion.  The  fault  lay  not  in  Congress,  however,  but  in  the 
weak  form  of  federal  government,  which  did  not  allow  Congress  to  raise  money 
from  the  States  by  taxes. 

It  was  a  very  impressive  scene.  As  his  faithful  officers  and  comrades  clus 
tered  around  him,  their  eyes  moistened  with  tears,  he  said  with  stately  dignity, 
but  voice  shaking  with  emotion:  "With  heart  full  of  love  and  gratitude,  I  now 
take  leave  of  you,  most  devoutly  wishing  that  your  latter  days  may  be  as  pros 
perous  and  happy  as  your  former  ones  have  been  glorious  and  honorable.  I 
cannot  come  to  each  of  you  to  take  my  leave,  but  shall  be  obliged  if  you  will 
come  and  take  me  by  the  hand."  They  did  so;  and  Washington  affectionately 
embraced  each  one;  then,  in  silence,  he  turned  and  entered  his  barge  at  White 
hall  Ferry,  and  waved  his  hat  in  farewell  greeting. 


188  THE   REVOLUTION 

ting,  and  to  that  body  tendered  his  resignation  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Continental  army.1  The  great  gen 
eral  was  received  by  the  statesmen  with  a  warmth  of  love 
and  admiration  that  much  affected  him;  but  modestly 
hurrying  from  the  scene  where  he  was  the  lion  of  the  hour, 
he  quietly  proceeded  to  his  beautiful  home  at  Mount  Ver- 
non,  on  the  Potomac  River.  He  refused  any  pay  whatso 
ever  for  his  services,  and  asked  only  that  his  own  expenses 
and  the  money  he  had  spent  in  paying  and  feeding  his 
comrades  in  arms  2  might,  when  convenient,  be  repaid  by 
the  young  Republic. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  great  services  did  George  Rogers  Clark  render  to  his  country? 

2.  Find,  in  a  larger  history,  the  details  of  Arnold's  grievances,  and  report 
to  the  class. 

3.  Sketch  from  memory  a  map  showing  the  situation  of  Cormvallis  at 
Yorktown. 

4.  Contrast  present  methods  of  transmission  of  news  with  the  slow 
methods  which  prevailed  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution. 

5.  Name  the  acts  of  Washington,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  which  show  his 
high  character. 

6.  Draw  or  trace  on  a  map  the  boundaries  of  the  new  nation. 

7.  Name  the  thirteen  original  States. 

8.  The  following  are  objects  of  great  historic  interest  to  all  Americans; 
tell  where  each  is,  and  why  it  is  historically  interesting:  —  Inde 
pendence  Hall,  Lexington  Green,  Plymouth  Rock,  Jamestown,  Mount 
Vernon. 

9.  Name  two  Americans  who  by  speeches  and  letters  greatly  influenced 
the  Americans  to  resist  the  British  Government;  name  two  others  (not 
soldiers  or  generals)  who  contributed  greatly  to  the  American  cause. 
Name  a  great  English  statesman  who  was  the  steadfast  friend  of  Amer 
ica. 

/o.  Relate  any  incident  of  the  war  in  which  you  are  particularly  interested. 

II.  Explain  why  there  was  rejoicing  by  many  people  in  England  at  the 
outcome  of  the  war. 

1  Briefly  addressing  the  president  of  Congress,  Washington  said:  "The  great 
events  on  which  my  resignation  depended  having  at  length  taken  place,  I  have 
now  the  honor  ...  to  claim  the  indulgence  of  retiring  from  the  service  of  my 
country.  ...  I  here  offer  my  commission,  and  take  leave  of  all  the  employ 
ments  of  public  life." 

2  1 1  amounted  to  nearly  $75,000,  which  in  that  day  was  thought  to  be  a  good- 
sized  fortune. 


CLOSING  YEARS   OF  THE   REVOLUTION       189 

12.  State  the  date  and  place  of  the  beginning  and  of  the  end  of  the  war. 

13.  What  is  the  feeling  between  the  United  States  and  England  to-day? 

14.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

15.  Important  dates:  — 

1777  —  Surrender  of  Burgoyne. 
1781  —  Surrender  of  Cornwallis. 
1783  —  Treaty  of  Peace. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Apply  to  the  life  of  Benedict  Arnold  this  quotation  from  Scott:  — 

"The  wretch,  concentred  all  in  self, 
•Living  shall  forfeit  fair  renown, 
And,  doubly  dying,  shall  go  down 
To  the  vile  dust  from  which  he  sprung, 
Unwept,  unhonored,  and  unsung." 

2.  After  reading  the  account  in  Alice  of  Old  Vincennes,  by  Thompson, 
or  The  Crossing,  by  Churchill,  tell  of  the  capture  of  Vincennes  from 
the  British. 

3.  Read  the  first  four  stanzas  of  Whittier's  poem  Yorktown,  and  then  write 
a  prose  description  of  the  scene. 

4.  Describe  Washington's  parting  with  Lafayette  when  the  latter  started 
for  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  war.     This  may  be  dramatized. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR 

THE  French  and  Indian  War  had  shown  the  colonies  that 
they  were  stronger  when  they  acted  together,  and  that  they  had 
military  power.  The  colonists  were  proud,  however,  to  be  called 
Englishmen  and  were  loyal  subjects  of  the  throne.  They  consid 
ered  that  they  had  all  the  rights  of  Englishmen  in  England,  a  funda 
mental  one  being  that  which  depended  on  the  ancient  principle, 
"No  taxation  without  representation."  They  were  willing  to  pay 
all  taxes  voted  by  their  colonial  assemblies,  but  no  others. 

Great  Britain,  through  her  Parliament,  violated  this  principle 
by  the  Stamp  Act  and  by  laying  additional  duties  on  imported 
goods.  She  also  sent  over  an  army  to  enforce  the  old  Navigation 
and  Manufacturing  Acts. 

Parliament  was  forced  to  withdraw  the  Stamp  Act  by  a  colonial 
boycott  of  goods  imported  from  her  shores,  but  she  foolishly  levied 
new  duties  —  among  them,  an  import  tax  on  tea.  The  colonists 
responded  by  destroying  the  tea  brought  to  their  harbors.  The 
mother  country  retaliated  with  the  "Intolerable  Acts,"  which 
still  further  angered  the  colonists.  The  colonists  organized  com 
mittees  of  correspondence,  and,  in  1774,  the  First  Continental 
Congress  met  in  Philadelphia. 


190  THE   REVOLUTION 

Pitt  and  Burke  pleaded  in  Parliament  for  the  colonies,  but  aL 
overtures  were  rejected,  and  on  April  19,  1775,  war  was  begun  with 
the  righting  at  Concord  and  Lexington.  The  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill  followed.  The  Second  Continental  Congress  placed  George 
Washington  in  command  of  the  American  armies.  On  July  4, 
1776,  this  Congress  passed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  de 
claring  the  colonies  to  be  sovereign  States,  independent  of  British 
control. 

Notable  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution  were  the  capture  of  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  by  the  British,  Washington's  victory  at 
Trenton,  Burgoyne's  surrender  near  Saratoga,  the  terrible  winter 
at  Valley  Forge,  the  Battle  of  Monmouth,  the  Wyoming  massacre, 
the  momentous  expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  the  naval 
battles  of  John  Paul  Jones,  and  the  victories  in  the  South  of 
Greene,  Morgan,  and  "Light-horse  Harry"  Lee. 

The  Americans  were  almost  Without  money;  they  were  not  ac 
customed  to  union;  Charles  Lee  proved  mutinous,  and  Benedict 
Arnold  traitorous ;  Washington  was  continually  harassed  by  open, 
and  secret  enemies.  Yet  the  Americans  were  fighting  in  their  own 
country  and  for  their  own  liberties,  and  in  Washington  they  had 
a  wholly  unselfish  leader  of  brilliant  generalship,  untiring  patience, 
and  indomitable  energy. 

George  III  had  added  to  American  wrath  by  hiring  Hessians- 
and  persuading  Indians  to  fight  against  his  American  subjects. 
The  colonists  were  extremely  fortunate  in  their  European  friends. 
The  aid  of  France  was  invaluable;  without  her  the  colonists  could 
scarcely  have  succeeded  in  their  struggle.  Among  America's  best 
friends  in  the  time  of  need,  were  Pitt  and  Burke  in  England; 
John  Paul  Jones  and  Barry,  sea  fighters  born  in  the  British  Isles; 
the  Germans  Steuben  and  De  Kalb ;  the  Polish  officers  Pulaski  and 
Kosciuszko;  and  the  brilliant  young  Frenchman,  Lafayette. 

The  end  came  in  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in 
1781 ;  but  the  treaty  of  peace  with  England  was  not  finally  signed 
till  1783. 

RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  II, 
PP-  383-93.  402-33,  454-63,  482-518,  540-90-  Fiske's  United  States,  pp. 
181-241.  Elson's  United  States,  chaps,  xi-xiv.  Howard's  Preliminaries 
of  the  Revolution,  chaps,  i,  n,  vi-xi,  xm.  Van  Tyne's  American  Revolution, 
chaps,  I,  n,  vn,  vni,  x,  xn,  xv-xvii.  Fisher's  Struggle  for  American 
Independence,  vol.  I,  chaps.  I,  vi,  vni,  xiv,  xv,  xxv,  xxvi;  vol.  n,  chaps. 
LVIII-LXII,  xc-cin,  ex.  Fiske's  American  Revolution,  vol.  I,  chaps.  IV-VH; 
vol.  II,  chaps,  vill,  IX,  xn-xiv.  Wilson's  History  of  American  People,  vol. 


REVIEW  191 

II,  chaps,  in,  IV.  Burke's  Conciliation  with  America  (Old  South  Leaflets, 
No.  200).  Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the  West,  vol.  I,  chaps,  vi,  x;  vol.  n, 
chaps,  i-iv,  x.  Sparks's  Men  Who  Made  the  Nation,  chaps,  i-vn.  Hap- 
good's  George  Washington.  Bolton's  Private  Soldier  under  Washington. 
Morse's  Franklin.  Hosmer's  Samuel  Adams.  Tyler's  Patrick  Henry. 
Thwaites's  How  George  Rogers  Clark  Won  the  Northwest,  pp.  1-72;  Daniel 
Boone.  Buell's  John  Paul  Jones.  Oberholtzer's  Robert  Morris.  Wharton's 
Martha  Washington.  Myers's  Sally  Wister's  Journal. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Camp  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution.  Elson's 
Guide  to  American  History,  pp.  70-103.  Coffin's  Boys  of  '76.  Hawthorne's 
Grandfather's  Chair,  part  3.  Scudder's  Boston  Town,  chaps,  ix-xi.  Drake's 
Watch  Fires  of  '76.  Baldwin's  Conquest  of  Old  Northwest.  Tappan's  Our 
Country's  Story,  pp.  120-67;  Hero  Stories,  pp.  143-207.  Lodge  and  Roose 
velt's  Hero  Tales,  pp.  1-79.  Frothingham's  Sea  Fighters,  chaps,  xvm- 
xxi.  Cleveland's  Stories  of  Brave  Old  Times.  Blaisdell  and  Ball's  Hero 
Stories  from  American  History.  Perry  and  Beebe,  Four  American  Pioneers 
(for  Boone  and  Clark).  Hill's  On  the  Trail  of  Washington.  Wister's  Seven 
Ages  of  Washington.  Brooks's  Franklin;  Lafayette.  Holden's  Our  Country's 
Flag. 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Churchill's  Richard  Carvel;  The  Crossing.  Ford's 
Janice  Meredith.  Frederick's  In  the  Valley.  Jewett's  Tory  Lover.  Mitch 
ell's  Hugh  Wynne.  Thompson's  Alice  of  Old  Vincennes. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Altsheler's  Young  Trailers.  Barnes's  For  King  or  Coun 
try.  Eggleston's  Carolina  Cavalier;  Long  Knives.  Henty's  True  to  the  Old 
Flag.  King's  Cadet  Days.  Ogden's  A  Royal  Little  Redcoat.  Otis's  At  the 
Siege  of  Quebec.  Stoddard's  Guert  Ten  Evck.  Tomlinson's  Washington's 
Young  Aids  (also  others  of  his  "Revolution  Stones").  True's  Scouting 
for  Washington  (and  its  sequels). 

POETRY 

Anon.,  Rodney's  Ride.  Bryant's  Song  of  Marion1 s  Men.  Carleton's 
Little  Black-Eyed  Rebel.  Drake's  American  Flag.  Emerson's  Concord 
Hymn.  Hale's  New  England's  Chevy  Chase.  Holmes's  Ballad  of  Boston 
Tea-Party;  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill  Battle;  Lexington.  Lanier's 
Lexington.  Longfellow's  Paul  Revere* s  Ride.  Lowell's  Under  the  Old  Elm. 
Pierpont's  Warren's  Address.  Whittier's  Yorktown. 


THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 
CHAPTER  XVII 

UNDER   THE   CONFEDERATION 

196.  Articles  of  Confederation  adopted;  formation  of  a 
public  domain.  When  the  colonies  separated  from  Great 
Britain,  they  were  like  thirteen  little  nations,  with  no  per 
manent  bond  of  union  between  them.  Their  representatives 
sat  in  the  Continental  Congress,  which  adopted  the  De 
claration  of  Independence;  and  this  body  successfully  car 
ried  on  the  Revolutionary  War.  But  its  members  saw  that 
now  the  war  was  over,  the  States  could  not  continue  to 
work  together  and  unite  in  building  up  a  great  American 
nation  until  they  had  formed  some  sort  of  permanent  central, 
or  federal,  government  that  should  be  able  to  manage  those 
large  affairs  that  affected  all  of  them. 

At  first,  however,  in  many  of  the  States,  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  objection  to  any  such  central  authority.  Men  were 
very  fond  of  the  State  governments  under  which  they  lived. 
These  governments  protected  them  in  their  homes  and 
looked  after  their  roads,  bridges,  schools,  and  all  other 
local  matters  in  which  they  were  interested.  Americans 
had  just  broken  away  from  a  strong  central  power  that  had 
sought  to  rule  tyrannically  over  them,  and  they  feared  that 
the  proposed  new  Federal  Government  might  prove  to  be 
just  as  arbitrary.  It  took  several  years  to  convince  them 
that  a  union  would  be  a  greater  protection  to  them  against 
their  enemies,  and  in  many  ways  would  serve  them  much 
better  than  if  there  remained  only  thirteen  separate  State 
governments,  each  a  little  nation  by  itself.  The  States 
needed  to  be  taught  the  value  of  "  team  work,"  and  to  learn 


THE  TJKITED  STATES 

I3ST    1783, 


UNDER  THE  CONFEDERATION  193 

that  there  could  not  be  a  union  without  some  sacrifice  of 
individual  rights  for  the  greater  good  of  all. 

It  was  1781,  the  last  year  of  the  war,  before  the  Articles 
of  Confederation,  which  had  been  proposed  by  the  Conti 
nental  Congress,  were  ratified  by  all  of  the  States.  A  sugges 
tion  by  Maryland  was  the  cause  of  much  of  the  delay.  She 
desired  that  before  she  signed  the  Articles,  all  States  claiming 
lands  beyond  the  Alleghenies  by  virtue  of  their  "  sea- to-sea" 
colonial  charters  should  surrender  those  lands,  and  that  these 
should  form- a  great  public  domain  under  control  of  the  new 
Federal  Government.  She  suggested  that  the  lands  in  this 
domain  be  sold  to  settlers  for  the  benefit  of  the  Federal 
Treasury,  which  in  this  way  might  recover  some  of  the  great 
cost  of  the  Revolution ;  and  she  further  pointed  out  that  as 
population  increased  in  the  Northwest,  new  States  could 
be  formed  there,  and  thus  the  Union  would  grow  and 
strengthen.  The  States  having  Western  land  claims  gener 
ously  adopted  Maryland's  suggestion,  and  between  1780 
and  1786  all  of  the  trans- Allegheny  country  north  of  the 
Ohio  River  was  ceded  to  Congress,  as  she  had  desired.1 
This  was  the  first  public  land  owned  by  our  National  Gov 
ernment.  The  cession  had  two  great  and  lasting  results:  - 

(a)  No  longer  could   the   Eastern  States  have  serious 
boundary  disputes  over  their  Western  lands.    Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania,  in  particular,  had  had  much  trouble  of  this 
sort  before  the  Revolutionary  War. 

(b)  The  people  of  all  the  States  soon  became  interested 
in  the  newly  acquired  public  lands  in  the  West,  which  were 
owned  equally  by  every  American.     From  this  common 
ownership  there  sprang  up,  almost  for  the  first  time,  a 
general  feeling  of  regard  for  the  new  nation. 

197.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  prove  to  be  weak. 
When  at  last  the  Articles  of  Confederation  were  put  into 

1  In  making  her  cession  (1786),  Connecticut  reserved  a  strip  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  long,  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  This  is  still  known  as 
the  "Western  Reserve"  of  Ohio.  A  part  of  it  was  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Connecticut  schools,  but  in  1800  the  remainder  was  turned  over  to  the  nation. 
South  of  the  Ohio  River,  cessions  were  not  made  until  later  dates  than  those 
north  of  it — South  Carolina,  1787;  North  Carolina,  1790;  Georgia,  1802. 


194  THE   FORMATION   OF  THE   UNION 

operation,  it  did  not  take  long  for  our  best  statesmen  to 
realize  that  no  strong  nation  could  be  developed  by  this 
plan  of  union.  It  proved  to  be  too  weak  for  our  needs,  and 
for  these  reasons :  - 

(a)  No  matter  how  large  or  small  each  State  was,  it  had 
but  one  vote  in  Congress,  so  that  little  Delaware,  for  ex 
ample,  had  just  as  much  voice  in  deciding  questions  as  the 
great  State  of  Virginia.    The  larger  States  bitterly  com 
plained  of  this. 

(b)  Congress  could  pass  no  laws  unless  nine  of  the  thirteen 
States  consented  to  them.     There  was  so  much  jealousy 
between  them  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  get  the  consent 
of  nine  to  any  measure. 

(c)  The  laws  could  not  be  enforced,  for  there  was  no  Presi 
dent  to  execute  them. 

(d)  Congress  was  only  an  adviser  to  the  States.    It  had 
no  real  authority  of  its  own.    It  could  not  even  raise  taxes 
for  its  own  needs;  it  had  only  such  money  as  might  be  given 
to  it  by  the  State  Legislatures  —  it  could  not  oblige  them 
to  pay  if  they  refused.   This  fact  had  led  to  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  in  carrying  on  the  Revolution,  and  often  caused 
much  suffering  in  the  army.    Because  of  it,  Washington  had 
often  to  draw  upon  his  private  fortune  to  pay  and  clothe 
the  Nation's  defenders.  Because  of  it,  Congress  had  no  means 
ot  paying  the  great  debts  of  the  nation,  caused  by  the  war. 

That  body  had  borrowed  large  sums  of  money  in  France 
and  Holland  which  it  could  not  pay,  and  in  addition  had 
issued  vast  quantities  of  paper  money  which  it  could  not 
now  redeem  in  real  money.  In  consequence  of  this  plight 
of  our  Federal  Government,  the  national  credit  sank  very 
low.  Having  no  power  of  its  own,  Congress  could  not  de 
fend  itself  from  insult.  Once,  toward  the  close  of  the  war 
it  was  forced  to  hurry  from  Philadelphia  to  Princeton,  be' 
cause  threatened  by  a  large  body  of  unpaid  soldiers  who 
demanded  that  they  at  once  be  given  the  money  due 
them. 

(e)  Congress  had  no  power  to  regulate  our  trade  with 


UNDER  THE  CONFEDERATION  195 

foreign  countries,  or  between  the  States.  Some  States 
sought  to  make  commercial  treaties  of  their  own  with  Eu 
ropean  nations,  and  collected  duties  on  imports.  Several 
States  even  levied  duties  on  imports  from  each  other,  a 
form  of  commercial  warfare  that  led  to  many  serious  dis 
putes  between  them,  and  interstate  trade  was  for  a  time 
nearly  ruined.1 

(/)  Congress  had  no  power  to  settle  the  disputes  that 
frequently  arose  between  citizens  of  different  States.  This 
resulted  in  some  injustice,  especially  when  a  citizen  of  one 
State  refused  to  pay  debts  owed  by  him  to  a  citizen  of  an 
other  State. 

When  the  new  Government  was  established,  Thomas 
Paine  had  exultingly  said,  "  The  times  that  try  men's  souls 
are  over."  But  he  was  wrong.  In  the  words  of  Daniel 
Webster,  the  Union  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  was 
"  merely  a  rope  of  sand." 

198.  Adoption  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  However,  the 
Congress  serving  under  the  Articles  rendered  one  most  im 
portant  service  to  the  nation,  by  adopting  a  form  of  govern 
ment  for  the  new  public  domain,  which  henceforth  was  to 
be  called  the  "  Northwest  Territory."  This  document  is 
known  as  the  "  Ordinance  of  1787,"  because  it  was  passed 
in  that  year.2  It  is  famous  in  our  history,  because :  — 

(a)  It   provided   for  religious   freedom   throughout   the 
Territory. 

(b)  It  declared  that  "  the  means  of  education  shall  for 
ever  be  encouraged."   A  law  adopted  two  years  before  had 
decreed  that  large  tracts  of  public  lands  should  be  sold  for 
the  benefit  of  schools  and  colleges  in  the  Territory. 

1  For  instance,  New  Jersey's  country  produce  was  taxed  on  entering  both 
Philadelphia  and  New  York.    In  retaliation  for  the  latter,  New  Jersey  placed- 
a  tax  of  $1800  on  a  New  York  lighthouse  standing  on  the  Jersey  shore. 

Connecticut  admitted  cargoes  in  English  vessels  duty  free,  but  shipments 
to  that  State  from  Massachusetts  must  pay  duty.  Firewood  shipped  from 
Connecticut  paid  a  tax  in  New  York. 

2  In  1784  Thomas  Jefferson  had  offered  in  Congress  a  plan  for  governing  this 
territory  and  dividing  it  into  States;  but  his  plan  had  been  rejected.    It  had, 
however,  many  of  thr»  features  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787. 


I96 


THE  FORMATION   OF  THE  UNION 


(c)  It  declared  that  human  slavery  should  never  be 
mitted  within  the  borders  of  the  Territory. 

The  adoption  of  the  Ordinance  strengthened  the  interest 
in  the  West  which  the  people  of  the  whole  country  were 
beginning  to  feel.  Revolutionary  soldiers  and  other  settlers 
began  at  once  to  pour  into  the  region,  which  grew  rapidly 

population.     In 


in 

later  years  it  was 
divided  into  the 
States  indicated  on 
the  map.  All  of 
these  owed  their 
early  prosperity  to 
the  successful  work 
ing  of  the  Ordinance 
of  1787. 

199.  Troubles 
under  the  Confed 
eration.  The  his 
tory  of  our  Union 
under  the  weak  Ar 
ticles  of  Confedera 
tion  is  called  the 
"  critical  period," 
because  during  that 
time  the  future  of 
the  young  nation 
seemed  very  dark  and  uncertain.  We  have  read  of  some  of 
the  reasons  for  this  condition.  There  were  also  others:  — 

(a)  Our  people  had  ceased  to  be  British  subjects,  and  for 
that  reason  the  markets  controlled  by  Great  Britain  were 
now  virtually  closed  to  them.    Thus  American  ocean  com 
merce  was  at  a  standstill;  and  our  once  thriving  industry 
of  shipbuilding  was  nearly  dead. 

(b)  The  country  was  flooded  with  paper  money;  yet  the 
people  who  owed  debts  —  and  the  war  had  made  most  Ameri 
cans  poor  —  demanded  that  additional  bills  be  printed,  and 


THE   NORTHWEST   TERRITORY 

The  shaded  portion  shows  the  Territory,  also  its  later  division  into 
States.  Ohio  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1803;  Indiana,  1816; 
Illinois,  1818;  Michigan,  1837;  Wisconsin,  1848.  A  part  of  the 
Territory  is  also  included  in  Minnesota,  admitted  in  1858 


UNDER  THE   CONFEDERATION  197 

they  be  allowed  to  pay  their  debts  in  this  "  cheap  "  money. 
Most  of  the  States  unwisely  yielded  to  this  popular  clamor. 
Their  action  threw  business  into  still  worse  confusion,  for 
merchants  and  manufacturers  refused  either  to  buy  or  sell 
if  they  had  to  take  this  worthless  paper  in  exchange  for  their 
goods.1 

Citizens  almost  lost  their  confidence  in  the  future  of  the 
nation.  There  wras  little  respect  for  the  laws,  crime  was 
widespread,  and  life  and  property  were  insecure.  Every 
thoughtful  American  now  realized  that  there  is  something 
far  worse  than  tyranny,  and  that  is  anarchy.  They  sawr  that 
a  stronger,  more  efficient  Federal  Government  must  surely 
be  formed,  or  the  new  Republic  would  soon  go  to  pieces. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  were  some  reasons  for  the  lack  of  a  strong  national  feeling  after 
our  independence  had  been  won?  Why  would  you  have  expected  the 
contrary  to  be  true? 

2.  The  thirteen  colonies  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  did  not 
understand  the  meaning  of  our  term  "team  work."    Show  that  this 
was  true.    W'hat  is  the  underlying  principle  of  team  work?    Why 
necessary  in  our  nation? 

3.  The  historian  Fiske  says  the  acquisition  of  the  Northwest  Territory 
"prepared  men's  minds  for  the  work  of  the  Federal  Convention." 
Explain. 

4.  What  makes  the  Ordinance  of   1787  such  an  important  document? 
How  is  its  influence  felt  to-day? 


1  In  their  practice  regarding  paper  <money,  there  were  two  classes  of  States: 
(a)  Those,  of  which  Rhode  Island  w£s  an  example,  in  which  the  legislature 
yielded  to  the  popular  clamor,  and  issued  paper  money,  and  then  passed  "  legal 
tender  "  laws  that  sought  to  compel  merchants  to  receive  it.  In  such  States, 
business  was  destroyed.  (6)  Those,  of  which  Massachusetts  was  an  example, 
in  which  the  legislature  refused  to  issue  such  money.  This  refusal  also  led  to 
much  distress,  for  there  was  little  real  money  to  be  had,  with  which  to  pay 
debts  and  taxes.  During  the  winter  of  1786-87,  a  rebellion  of  debtors  broke 
out  in  Massachusetts,  led  by  Daniel  Shays  (called  "Shays's  Rebellion").  The 
rioters  prevented  the  courts  from  imprisoning  debtors  as  was  then  the  cus 
tom,  and  for  seven  months  created  much  disturbance  by  burning  property 
and  terrorizing  the  police;  but  finally  they  were  quelled. 

This  rebellion  taught :  (a)  That  the  Articles  of  Confederation  had  brought  the 
country  to  a  condition  in  which  its  citizens  were  led  to  revolt  against  a  State 
Government,  and  Congress  was  powerless  to  prevent  it.  (b)  That  a  new  set  of 
laws  was  a  necessity,  if  the  country  was  to  be  peaceful  and  grow  strong. 


198  THE   FORMATION   OF  THE   UNION 

5.  Learn  this  quotation  from  the  Ordinance:  — 

11  Knowledge,  religion,  and  morality  being  necessary  to  good  govern 
ment  and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  educa 
tion  shall  forever  be  encouraged." 

6.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "Confederation"?    "Ordinance"?    "Critical 
Period'?   What  historical  fact  or  period  does  each  bring  to  mind? 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  The  Revolutionary  soldiers  have  received  land  grants  in  the  North 
west  Territory.   One  has  decided  to  settle  in  the  Western  Reserve,  one 
near  Detroit,  one  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  and  one  near  Vincennes. 
Let  four  members  of  the  class  impersonate  these  soldiers,  and  each 
state  what  he  believes  to  be  the  advantages  of  the  locality  he  has. 
chosen. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  are  the  fourteen-year-old  son  of  a  soldier  killed  in 
the  Revolution.   Tell  of  the  uselessness  of  the  fortune  in  paper  money 
as  left  to  the  family  by  your  father.   Tell  of  your  joy  at  finding  one 
hundred  silver  dollars  he  had  hidden  away. 

3.  Write -a  letter  to  your  cousin  in  England  in  which  you  set  forth  the 
troubles  and  difficulties  because  of  a  lack  of  union  among  the  States. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION 

200.  The  Constitutional  Convention.  The  commercial 
war  between  the  States  was  so  disastrous  for  the  business 
interests  of  the  country  that  statesmen  and  leading  mer 
chants  and  shipowners  soon  began  strongly  to  demand  that 
this  warfare  cease.  A  convention  was  called  to  meet  in 
Annapolis,  Maryland,  in  1786,  to  see  what  could  be  done 
for  the  better  regulation  of  trade  between  the  States  and 
with  foreign  countries.  But  only  five  of  the  thirteen  States 
sent  delegates.  Nothing,  therefore,  was  actually  decided 
by  the  members,  further  than  to  ask  Congress  itself  to  call 
a  national  convention  for  the  adoption  of  a  constitution. 
It  was  now  seen  by  many  wise  men  that  the  only  way  out 
of  the  difficulty  was  to  have  a  much  stronger  central  govern 
ment  than  the  Articles  of  Confederation  provided  for, -and 
to  abolish  all  barriers  to  trade  between  the  States. 

The  great  Constitutional  Convention,  which  opened  at 
Philadelphia  on  May  25,  1787,  had  for  its  purpose  the 
providing  of  a  "  more  perfect  Union  "  between  the  States. 
Its  president  was  General  Washington,  who  was  the  fore 
most  citizen  of  the  Republic;  and  among  the  fifty-five 
members  were  other  leading  men  from  every  colony  ex 
cept  Rhode  Island,  which  was  not  represented.  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  the  oldest  delegate,  also  one  of  the  wisest, 
and  had  great  influence;  James  Madison  took  so  promi 
nent  a  part  in  drafting  the  new  instrument  that  he  has 
been  called  the  "  Father  of  the  Constitution";  and  Alex 
ander  Hamilton,  the  youngest  member,1  won  lasting  fame 

1  Hamilton  was  born  in  the  West  Indies,  in  1757;  but  he  was  sent  to  school  in 
New  York,  where  he  arrived  in  1772,  when  fifteen  years  old.  Two  years  later  he 
attended  a  great  open-air  meeting  in  that  city,  and  made  an  eloquent  speech 
in  favor  of  the  Revolution;  this,  and  two  pamphlets  that  he  wrote  at  the  time. 


200  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 

for  his  sound  judgment  in  all  matters  relating  to  Federal 
finances. 

Almost  every  delegate  had  strong  opinions  of  his  own,  and 
sometimes  it  seemed  as  though  it  would  be  impossible  to 
get  all  of  them  to  agree  on  any  one  thing.  Finally,  various 
compromises  were  arranged  on  the  matters  chiefly  in  dis 
pute.1  The  Constitution  under  which  we  now  live  was  signed 
on  September  17,  and  Congress  at  once  sent  it  to  the  States 
for  their  approval  or  disapproval. 2 

201.  Changes  wrought  by  the  Constitution.3  The  Con 
stitution  made  many  changes  in  the  manner  of  governing 

made  him  at^once  a  political  leader,  and  after  that  he  was  in  the  front  rank  of 
the  "rebels.]'  Through  the  war  he  was  on  the  staff  of  Washington,  who  found 
young  Hamilton's  pen  and  voice  of  great  service  to  the  cause;  to  him  is  due  a 
very  large  share  of  credit  for  securing  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  He  be 
came  the  leader  of  the  Federalists,  and  until  1795  served  with  great  distinction 
as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  After  this  he  was  the  most  prominent  lawyer  in 
New  York  City.  But  in  1804,  following  a  political  quarrel  with  Aaron  Burr, 
he  was  killed  by  the  latter  in  a  duel.  This  event  awakened  widespread  sorrow, 
for  Hamilton  was  greatly  beloved  and  honored  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
men  of  his  day. 

1  The  two  most  important  compromises  were  the  following:  — 

(a)  Should  the  number  of  votes  in  Congress  allowed  the  States  be  propor 
tioned  to  the  number  of  their  inhabitants?  The  large  States  said  "Yes,"  for 
otherwise  the  small  ones  would  have -as  much  power  in  the  Government 
as  themselves,  and  to  them  this  seemed  unfair.  The  small  States  said  "No," 
because  they  feared  that  the  large  States  would  lord  it  over  them.  A  com 
promise  _was  arranged  by  which  Congress  was  divided  into  two  houses  —  the 
Senate,  in  which  each  State,  large  or  small,  was  to  be  represented  by  two 
members;  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  whose  members  were  to  be 
in  proportion  to  the  population. 

(&)  Should  slaves  be  counted  as  population?  If  so,  then  the  South,  which 
said  "  Yes,"  would  have  a  larger  power  than  would  seem  to  be  just,  considering 
the  small  number  of  its  white  population.  The  North  wanted  only  freemen  to 
be  counted  as  population.  The  convention  finally  compromised,  by  agreeing 
that  when  Representatives  in  Congress  were  being  chosen,  only  three-fifths  of 
the  slaves  should  be  counted  as  population ;  in  other  words,  five  slaves  would 
be  counted  as  three  persons.  This  method  was  also  to  be  followed  whenever 
direct  taxes  were  apportioned  "according  to  population"  — but  taxes  of  this 
kind  have  been  assessed  only  a  few  times  in  the  nation's  history. 

2  The  great  English  statesman,  Gladstone,  once  said  of  our  Constitution  that 
it  was  "the  most  wonderful  work  ever  struck  off  at  a  given  time  by  the  brain 
and  purpose  of  men."    But  although  the  written  instrument  was  made  in  only 
four  months,  the  Constitution  had  in  reality  been  of  slow  growth;  for  it  was  the 
direct  product  of  the  experience  of  the  colonists  in  self-government,  and  that 
experience  reached  far  back  to  the  training  of  their  liberty-loving  forefathers 
in  the  motherland. 

3  The  complete  text  of  the  Constitution  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  com 
mencing  at  page  xi. 


THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION      201 

the  United  States.    Four  of  these  were  of  the  greatest  im 
portance  :- 

(a)  The  Nation  was  now  to  have  a  President,  to  execute 
the  Federal  laws.    The  only  real  executives  under  the  Ar 
ticles  of  Confederation  were  the  governors  of  the  thirteen 
States. 

(b)  Congress  was  given  authority  to  raise  taxes  to  meet 
the  cost  of  carrying  on  the  Federal  Government.    No  na 
tional  government  can  have  any  real  strength  unless  it  has 
money  to  pay  its  army  and  navy,  its  judges,  and  other 
officers  and  employees. 

(c)  There  was  now  to  be  freedom  of  trade  between  the 
States;  that  is,  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  might  buy 
or   sell  anywhere  in  the  country,  without    paying   export 
or  import  duties  to  any  State.  To  Congress  alone  was  given 
the  power  of  saying  how  trade  between  citizens  of  different 
States  should  be  conducted. 

(d)  A  Federal  Supreme  Court  was  established  to'  decide 
all  questions  as  to  how  much  authority  the  Federal  Gov 
ernment  should  have  under  the  Constitution.    It  was  also 
to  settle  disputes  between  citizens  of  different  States  and 
in  later  years  it  began  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  laws 
passed  by  Congress  agreed  with  the  Constitution.    When 
ever  a  law  is  found  by  this  court  to  be"  unconstitutional/' 
it  ceases  to  have  the  force  of  law. 

202.  Ratification.  Long  and  exciting  debates  arose  in 
the  several  States,  over  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution, 
which  had  to  be  voted  on  by  the  people.  On  this  question 
citizens  were  divided  into  two  great  political  parties :  - 

(a)  The  Federalists.1  These  were  the  men  who  favored 
the  Constitution,  and  wanted  to  have  it  adopted  just  as  it 
came  from  the  Convention.  They  believed  that  the  Union 
needed  the  strong  central  Government  which  the  Constitu 
tion  provided  for.  Among  those  of  this  way  of  thinking  were 
Washington,  Franklin,  Hamilton,  and  Madison.  Washing 
ton  wrote  to  Patrick  Henry:  "  I  wish  the  Constitution 
1  This  name  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  union  or  league. 


202  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 

which  is  offered  had  been  more  perfect;  but  I  sincerely  be 
lieve  it  is  the  best  which  could  be  obtained  at  this  time. 
And  as  a  constitutional  door  is  open  for  amendments  here 
after,  the  adoption  of  it,  under  the  present  circumstances  of 
the  Union,  is  in  my  opinion  desirable."  He  pointed  out  that 
as  "  the  political  concerns  of  this  country  are  in  a  manner 
suspended  by  a  thread,"  anarchy  might  result  if  the  instru 
ment  were  rejected. 


|      ' 

«  •     -  I 

' 


PARADE   IN   NEW  YORK   IN   HONOR   OF  THE    ADOPTION   OF  THE 
CONSTITUTION,  1788 

(b)  The  Anti- Federalists.  This  was  the  name  given  to  those 
who  feared  that  the  proposed  new  Federal  Government 
might  in  time  become  so  strong  as  to  destroy  the  people's 
liberties,  and  that  the  President  might  become  a  despot. 
They  also  complained  that  the  Constitution  contained  no 
"  bill  of  rights,"  or  promise  that  the  lives,  liberty,  and 
property  of  the  people  should  be  protected  by  the  Govern 
ment.  The  makers  of  the  Constitution  had  not  thought  it 
necessary  to  insert  such  a  promise  in  that  document,  which 
gave  only  definite  powers  to  the  National  Government; 
but  to  satisfy  this  objection,  a  "  bill  of  rights  "  was  later 


THE  ADOPTION   OF  THE   CONSTITUTION      203 

supplied  in  the  first  ten  Amendments.  The  Anti-Federalists 
insisted  that  the  States  should  continue  to  have  greater 
power  than  •  "he  Nation,  as  was  the  case  under  the  Arti 
cles  of  Confederation.  They  proposed,  therefore,  merely 
to  amend  the  Articles,  so  as  to  give  Congress  a  little  more 
power  as  well  as  some  revenue  of  its  own.  Patrick  Henry 
and  Richard  Henry  Lee  belonged  to  this  party. 

As  soon  as  nine  State  conventions,  the  smallest  number 
necessary  for  adoption,  were  carried  in  favor  of  the  Con 
stitution  Congress  announced  to  the  people  in  June,  1788, 
that  the  new  Government  could  be  organized.1  Later,  the 
other  four  States  also  gave  their  consent.  "  Now,"  triumph 
antly  wrote  John  Adams,  who  was  a  strong  Federalist,  "  the 
thirteen  clocks  all  struck  together." 

203.  Election  and  inauguration  of  Washington  as  Presi 
dent.  In  the  first  presidential  election,  the  electors  provided 
for  in  the  Constitution  expressed  the  wish  of  a  large  ma 
jority  of  the  people  by  unanimously  choosing  Washington 
as  President  and  John  Adams  as  Vice- President.  Early  in 
April,  1789,  this  result  was  made  known  to  the  country  by 
Congress,  then  holding  its  session  in  New  York  City,  which 
had  been  selected  as  the  first  capital  of  the  Republic  under 
the  Constitution. 

On  April  16  Washington  started  from  Mount  Vernon 
and  rode  on  horseback  to  the  seat  of  government.  Every 
where  along  the  route,  village  and  city  streets  were  deco 
rated  in  his  honor  with  evergreens,  laurels,  banners,  and 
triumphal  arches ;  2  and  demonstrations  of  love  and  enthu- 

1  The  majority  of  the  people  hailed  the  news  with  noisy  rejoicing.    In  Phila 
delphia  —  where  the  Continental  Congress  had  met,  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence  had  been  adopted,  and  the  Constitutional  Convention  had  done  its 
great  work — 'there  were  great  demonstrations  of  delight.    On  the  following 
Fourth  of  July,  cannon  saluted  the  sunrise,  bells  pealed  joyously,  there  was  a 
marching  procession  of  five  thousand  people,  orators  proclaimed  the  coming 
glory  of  our  country,  and  at  night  nearly  every  building  was  illuminated  with 
candles  in  the  windows. 

2  The  one  over  the  bridge  at  Trenton,  across  which  he  had  led  his  little  army 
to  the  battle  of  Princeton,  was  especially  fine.     It  had  been  planned  by  the 
women,  and  bore  the  words,  "The  Defender  of  the  Mothers  will  be  the  Pro 
tector  of  the  Daughters."  Surmounting  this  structure  was  a  large  dome  with 
the  motto,  "To  Thee  Alone." 


2O4 


THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 


siasm  came  from  the  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  chil 
dren  who  crowded  the  roadsides  to  greet  the  most  eminent 
citizen  of  the  Republic.  When  at  last  he  reached  New  York, 
Congress  received  him  amid  roaring  naval  salutes  and  cheer 
ing  crowds.  This  heartfelt  homage  of  the  people  pleased 


I'amting  by  F.  C.  Yohn  owned  by  the  Continental  Fire  Insurance  Company  of  *\ew  York 

WASHINGTON   LANDING  AT  THE  FOOT  OF  WALL  STREET,  NEW  YORK 
Governor  Clinton  and  General  Knox  were  among  those  waiting  to  receive  him 

the  distinguished  leader  of  the  Revolution,  who  before  this 
had  hardly  understood  how  deeply  they  appreciated  his 
great  services  to  the  nation. 

On  April  30,  1789,  he  took  the  oath  of  office  on  the  bal 
cony  of  Old  Federal  Hall  on  Wall  Street,  while  the  multi 
tude  of  spectators  joyously  cried,  "  Long  live  George 
Washington,  President  of  the  United  States!  " 


THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION      205 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Let  the  class  organize  a  constitutional  convention,  and  choose  a  presi 
dent.   Discuss  the  voting  power  in  Congress  of  the  different  States.  A 
compromise  is  suggested  and  adopted. 

2.  What  is  a  compromise?    Turn  to  the  Index  of  the  book,  and  note 
Compromises  which  were  made  later  in  our  history.   State  why  com 
promises  are  necessary  in  a  government  like  ours. 

3.  Report  the  names  of  prominent  men  who  took  part  in  making  both 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Constitution. 

4.  What  three  departments  of  government  did  the  Constitution  create? 
Which  is  absolutely  necessary  in  every  form  of  government?   Why? 

5.  Show  how  your  school,  in  a  way,  represents  a  federation  of  states. 
What  regulations  are  enforced  by  the  principal?   By  your  teacher? 

6.  Compare  the  two  houses  of  Congress  as  to  the  number  of  members, 
how  chosen,  qualifications,  and  term  of  office.    (See  Appendix  A,  pages 
xi,  xii.) 

7.  Name  some  laws  affecting  your  community  made  by  (a)  Congress, 
(b)  the  State  Legislature,   (c]  local  officials  —  city,  village,  township, 
etc. 

8.  Turn  to  the  Constitution  in  Appendix  A,  page  xiv,  and  enumerate  some 
of  the  principal  powers  of  Congress.     Why  should  these  be  national 
rather  than  State  powers? 

9.  Name  the  various  plans  of  union  among  the  colonies  from  the  New 
England  Confederacy  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  ;  consult 
the  Index,  under  the  caption  Union. 

10.  Briefly  relate  the  causes  or  conditions  which  led  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  and  the 
Constitution. 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

12.  Important  date:  1789  —  the  election  of  Washington  as  President  and 
the  beginning  of  our  National  Government. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  spent  an  hour  in  the  Constitutional  Convention. 
Briefly  describe  what  you  saw  and  heard,  telling  the  subject  under 
discussion,  and  in  dialogue  form  show  the  part  taken  by  some  of  the 
great  men  present. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  your  cousin  in  Virginia  telling  him  of  your  marching 
in  the  procession  of  celebration,  and  of  the  other  events  of  the  Fourth 
of  July,  1788,  in  Philadelphia. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  were  one  of  the  girls  who  strewed  flowers  in  Wash 
ington's  path  as  he  approached  the  bridge  at  Trenton.    Many  years 
later  you  tell  your  granddaughters  of  the  events  of  that  day. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE    CONDITION    OF    THE   COUNTRY   IN    1790 

204.  Population.  The  first  Federal  census,  taken  in  1790, 
showed  that  the  United  States  had  at  that  time  a  population 
of  about  3,900,000,  a  fifth  of  whom  were  negroes.1  This 
was  a  smaller  number  than  is  contained  in  the  present  New 
York  City,  or  in  the  State  of  Ohio.  New  York,  which  was 

then  the  largest  city, 
had  only  33,000; 
Philadelphia  came 
next,  with  28,500; 
then  Boston,  with 
18,000;  Charleston, 
16,000;  and  Balti 
more,  13,000.  There 
are  now  in  our  coun 
try  upwards  of  a 
hundred  cities  larger 
than  the  New  York 
of  that  day.  In 
fact,  the  United 
States  was  in  1790 

1  There  were  perhaps  100,000  people  west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains, 
chiefly  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

The  heaviest  population  was  along  the  Atlantic  Coast.  Settlement  was  most 
dense  on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  upon  the  southern  coasts  of  New 
England  and  New  York;  but  there  was  also  a  good  sprinkling  in  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk  River  Valleys,  along  the  highway  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
and  in  the  valleys  of  Eastern  Virginia. 

At  that  time  the  United  States  comprised  all  of  the  country  south  of  the  pre 
sent  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  lying  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  except  Florida,  a  narrow  strip  along  the  gulf  coasts  of  Ala 
bama  and  Mississippi,  and  so  much  of  the  present  Louisiana  as  lies  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Florida  and  the  Gulf-shore  strip  just  alluded  to,  also  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  beyond  the  Mississippi,  belonged  to  Spain.  See  map 
facing  page  192. 


From  a  contemporary  engraving 

A  STREET    IN    PHILADELPHIA,   ABOUT  1800 
This  view  shows  Second  Street,  looking  north  from  Market  Street 


THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  IN   1790    207 

a  small  and  insignificant  nation,  with  less  population,  wealth, 
and  influence  than  is  in  our  time  possessed  by  either  Den 
mark  or  Belgium. 

203.  The  appearance  of  the  country.  Even  in  the  oldest 
settlements  along  the  Atlantic  Coast,  our  country  still  pre 
sented  a  rural  appearance;  for  example,  the  streets  and 
sidewalks  of  Boston  were  as  yet  unpaved,  and  strangers  to 
that  city  were  gazed  at  as  curiosities. 

The  land  west  of  the  Alleghenies  comprised,  for  the  most 
part,  vast  lonely  for 
ests,  or  immense 
treeless  prairies  of 
waving  grass,  bright 
ened  by  gorgeous 
flowers.  Towns  in 
this  wideregion  were 
small  and  far  sepa 
rated  ;  and  now  and 
then  the  savages 
made  murderous 
raids  against  the 
frontiersmen.  The 
conditions  there 
were  much  the  same 

as  they  had  been  in  the  East  in  Colonial  days.  The  back 
woods  cabins  were  of  logs,  and  in  the  center  of  each  hamlet 
usually  stood  a  stout  palisaded  fort,  or  blockhouse. 

206.  Roadsand  travel.  Most  of  the  highways,  East  or  West, 
were  still  almost  impassable  in  wet  weather,  and  horseback 
and  the  slow  and  cumbersome  stage-coach  were  the  only 
means  of  travel  by  land.  There  were  then  two  principal  roads 
from  the  East  to  the  country  beyond  the  mountains :  - 

(a)  Daniel  Boone's  "  Wilderness  Road,"  which  extended 
from  North  Carolina  and  southern  Virginia,  through  Cum 
berland  Gap,  into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  For  many 
years  thousands  of  hardy  pioneers  traveled  westward  along 
this  narrow  mountain  trail,  taking  with  them  their  live 


A  STAGE-COACH   CHANGING   HORSES  AT  AN 

INN 


208  THE   FORMATION   OF  THE   UNION 

stock  and  farming  tools,  ready  to  open  new  plantations 
in  the  West.  The  men  and  boys  went  chiefly  on  foot;  the 
women  and  girls  rode  horseback,  and  at  each  camping-place 
•cooked  for  the  party  and  looked  after  the  many  small 
children,  for  the  settlers  of  those  days  usually  had  large 
families.  Now  and  then  hostile  savages  attacked  these  trav 
elers.  Though  the  men  well  knew  how  to  defend  themselves 
with  their  long-barreled  rifles  and  broad-bladed  hunting- 
knives,  many  fell  victims  and  were  buried  by  the  wayside. 
(b)  A  rough  route  for  wagons  and  horses  was  cut  through 

the  forest  and  over 
the  hills,  all  the  long 
way  from  Philadel 
phia  to  Pittsburg. 
Should  the  traveler 
wish  to  go  still  far- 
****•  ther  into  the  West, 
he  must  descend  the 
Ohio  River  from 
Pittsburg  or  Wheel 
ing,  on  a  raft  or  in  a 
boat;1  but  upon  this 

journey  he  was  liable  to  be  shot  at  by  fierce  Indians  hiding 
in  the  dense  forests  which  lined  the  banks. 

207.  Postal  service.  The  most  constant  traveler  was  the 
post-rider,  who  carried  the  mails.  Often  he  was  an  eccen 
tric  character,  who  amused  himself  as  he  jogged  patiently 
along  on  horseback  by  trying  to  read  the  letters  carried  in 
his  saddle-bags,  or  possibly  by  knitting  socks  or  whittling 
some  article  out  of  a  stick.2 

1  A  variety  of  rude  vessels  were  used  on  the  Ohio.  The  most  common  were 
flatboats  propelled  and  steered  by  great  sweeps,  or  oars,  and  keel-boats,  using 
sails.      There  were  also  many  oddly  .shaped,  roughly  built  craft,  known  as 
"arks"  or  "broad-horns." 

2  The  mails  were  carried  between  Boston  and  New  York  three  times  a  week 
in  summer,  and  twice  a  week  in  winter.    In  1792  the  postage  rate  was  fixed 
at  six  cents  for  thirty  miles  or  less;  for  over  thirty  miles  the  rate  gradually 
increased,  until  it  cost  twenty-five  cents  to  send  a  letter  any  distance  beyond 
four  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 


THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  IN   1790    209 

208,  Education.  The  schoolhouses  were  crude  and  poorly 
furnished.    There  were  few  textbooks,  and  often  these  be 
longed  to  the  teacher.   Almost  the  only  studies  were  spell 
ing,  reading,    a  little  arithmetic  or  "  ciphering,"  writing 
with  quill  pens,  and  stories   from  the    Bible.    Nearly  all 
the  lessons  must  be  learned  "by  heart";  the  " dunce" 
could  expect  no  mercy,  and  was  made  to  stand  on  a  stool 
for  hours  at  a  time,  wearing  a  tall  paper  hat.    The  school 
master's  birch  rod  was  a  highly  respected  instrument  of 
torture,  being  used  without  stint  on  unruly  pupils. 

Young  people  were  expected  to  read  only  "  edifying  " 
books,  and  these  were  usually  solemn  and  exceedingly  dull. 
As  each  household  owned  but  a  few  volumes,  these,  together 
with  those  that  could  be  borrowed  from  the  neighbors, 
must  be  read  over  and  over  again  by  the  boy  or  girl  fond 
of  reading.  There  were,  of  course,  more  newspapers  than  in 
1750,  but  these  paid  little  attention  to  local  news.  As  for 
public  libraries  none  had  as  yet  been  thought  of  in  America. 
Several  colleges,  however,  had  been  established.1 

209.  Slavery.  At  this  time  negro  slavery  existed  in  all  of 
the  thirteen  original  States,  North  as  well  as  South,2  al 
though  for  several  practical  reasons  it  flourished  better  in 
the  latter  region  than  in  the  former:  — 

(a)  It  was  then  commonly  believed  that  white  people  could 
not  work  at  hard  labor  in  a  warm  climate,  and  keep  their 
health,  but  that  Africans  were  not  harmed  by  it. 

(b)  The  Africans  were  as  yet  but  partly  civilized,  and 

Between  1776  and  1794,  fourteen  colleges  were  founded.  These  were  in 
addition  to  those  earlier  ones  named  in  the  note  on  page  114. 

2  Several  of  the  New  England  colonies  had  quite  early  in  their  history  passed 
laws  against  slavery,  but  they  were  not  enforced.  The  constitution  of  Massa 
chusetts,  adopted  in  1780,  had  declared  that  no  man  might  be  a  slave  in  that 
State.  This  example  was  soon  followed  elsewhere  in  New  England. 

^In_  1780  Pennsylvania  passed  a  law  providing  for  the  gradual  freeing  of  slaves 
within  its  borders.  New  York  followed  with  a  similar  act  in  1799,  and  New 
Jersey  in  1804. 

^  Three  years  previous  to  the  Revolution  the  courts  of  Great  Britain  had  de 
cided  that  human  bondage  could  not  exist  in  the  British  Isles,  but  it  was  not 
abolished  in  her  colonies  until  1834.  Slaves  became  free  in  Mexico  in  1829;  in 
the  French  colonies  in  1848;  in  Russia  in  1861;  in  Dutch  colonies  in  1863. 
Gradually,  since  our  Civil  War,  all  other  civilized  lands  have  abolished  the 
system . 


210 


THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 


such  men  work  best  in  gangs,  under  overseers.  This  sys 
tem  was  well  suited  to  the  Southern  plantations,  with  their 
great  single  crops  of  tobacco,  rice,  and  cotton,  that  required 
only  rude  and  simple  hand  labor.  It  did  not  seem  a  desir 
able  system,  however,  for  the  busy  little  workshops  of  New 
England,  or  for  the  small  Northern  farms,  where  were  raised 
a  variety  of  crops  that  needed  separate  and  intelligent  treat 
ment. 

210.  Invention  of  the  cotton-gin.  It  is  possible  that  the 
South  might  in  time  have  decided  to  abandon  slavery, 

for  many  of  her 
prominent  citi 
zens  did  not  ap 
prove  of  it,  and 
this  opposition 
seemed  to  be 
growing.  But  in 
1792  an  event 
occurred  which 
entirely  changed 
the  situation. 
This  was  Eli 
Whitney's1  in 
vention  of  the 
cotton-gin,  a  machine  that  quickly  and  easily  separates  the 
cotton  fiber  from  the  many  seeds  it  incloses.  This  had  here 
tofore  been  a  slow  and  costly  process,  for  a  negro  "hand" 
could  in  the  old  days  "  clean  up  "  only  five  or  six  pounds  a 
day.  But  by  means  of  Whitney's  gin  he  might  clean  from 

1  Eli  Whitney  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1765.  After  graduating  from 
Yale  he  went  to  Georgia  as  a  teacher,  but  spent  most  of  his  time  in  inven 
tion.  The  cotton-gin  brought  him  little  reward,  partly  because  other  men 
wrongly  claimed  to  have  invented  one  before  him,  partly  because  the  patent 
laws  at  that  time  were  not  as  favorable  to  inventors  as  they  now  are,  and 
partly  because  of  the  destruction  of  his  factory  by  fire.  Later  he  made  a  for 
tune  by  manufacturing  firearms  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  where  he  died 
in  1825.  Robert  Fulton,  inventor  of  the  steamboat,  declared  that  Arkwright, 
who  invented  the  cotton-spinning  frame,  Watt,  who  constructed  the  first 
steam  engine,  and  Whitney  "were  the  three  men  that  did  most  for  mankind 
of  any  of  their  contemporaries." 


Courtesy,  Library  of  Congress 
WHITNEY'S   COTTON-GIN 


THE  GONDITTON  OF  THE  COUNTRY  IN   1790    211 

three  hundred  to  a  thousand  pounds,  which  put  an  entirely 
new  face  on  the  profits  of  cotton-growing.1 

The  new  machine  at  once  gave  a  tremendous  impetus 
to  the  industry  among  Southern  planters.  Negro  "  field 
hands  "  were  now  in  far  greater  demand  than  ever. before,2 
and  slavery  seemed  so  necessary  that  it  was  thenceforth 
securely  fastened  upon  the  South.  However,  the  North  also 
profited  much  by  this  institution,  for  hundreds  of  mills  were 
built  in  New  England  to  manufacture  cotton  cloth;  and 
many  of  the  New  England  shipoAvners  carried  on  the  un 
lawful  but  very  profitable  business  of  importing  slaves  from 
the  West  Indies  and  Africa  for  the  Southern  cotton-fields.3 

211.  Charities  and  reforms.  When  Washington  began 
his  administration,  men  in  most  of  the  States  were  still 
being  imprisoned  for  debt;  organized  charities  were  un 
known  ;  and  as  yet  there  had  been  little  attempt  to  reform 
criminals  or  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  unfortunate 
classes  of  the  population.4  Insane  and  other  defective  people 
were  kept  either  at  home  or  in  public  jails;  and  as  most 
prisons  in  that  day  were  extremely  unhealthful,  the  condi 
tion  of  those  placed  in  them  was  often  most  lamentable. 
•  Not  until  long  years  after  this  did  our  people  awake  to  the 
serious  importance  of  these  matters,  and  begin  to  insist 
that  prison  and  social  reforms  should  be  carried  out  in  the 
United  States. 

1  Cotton  was  raised  in  a  small  way  in  most  of  our  Southern  colonies,  but 
there  was  no  important  shipment  to  Europe  before  1784  (see  page  417). 

2  A  negro  man  slave,  eighteen  years  of  age  or  over,  was  at  this  time  worth  or 
the  average  about  $300  in  tobacco-growing  Virginia;  but  in  the  great  cotton- 
growing  States  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  such  a  man  was  worth, 
about  the  year  1820,  from  $800  to  $2000. 

3  In  1778  Virginia  prohibited  the  importation  of  slaves,  except  those  brought 
in  by  travelers  or  new  settlers.    By  1803  all  of  the  States  and  Territories,  ex 
cept  South  Carolina,  had  passed  similar  laws;  and  in  1807  Congress  did  the  same 
for  the  nation.   Nevertheless,  it  has  been  estimated  that  270,000  negro  slaves 
were  brought  into  our  country  by  smugglers,  from  Africa  and  the  West  Indies, 
between  the  years  1 808  and  1860. 

4  See  Oglethorpe's  attempt  to  improve  the  condition  of  poor  debtors  in 
Georgia,  page  72. 


212  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  population  of  the  United  States  in  1790?  What  is  it  at 
the  present  time?     How  many  immigrants  came  to  our  shores  during 
the  past  year?  Give  an  argument  for  and  one  against  admitting  so 
many  foreigners. 

2.  Point  out  on  the  map  the  five  largest  cities  of  the  United  States  in 
Washington  s  time;  in  our  own  time;  give  reasons  for  the  change. 

3.  Name  the  various  means  of  travel  in  1790.    How  did  the  difficulty  of 
travel  and  communication  influence  the  attitude  of  the  States  toward 
each  other? 

4.  Trace  on  a  map  of  the  United  States  the  two  principal  routes  of  com 
munication  between  the  East  and  the  West. 

5.  Compare  the  difficulties  encountered  by  a  settler  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghenies  in  1790,  with  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  homesteaders 
of  to-day. 

6.  Choose  any  two  of  the  older  cities  of  the  country  and  name  some  of 
the^  objects  of   historical   interest  which  may  be  seen   there.     Show 
a  picture  or  make  a  drawing  or  model  of  one  of  these. 

7.  Tell  why  slavery  gradually  ceased  to  exist  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  important  inventions,  unknown  in  Washington's  time, 
that  have  helped  to  bring  about  a  closer  relation  among  men. 

9.  In  what  charitable  and  social  reforms  is  our  country  much  interested 
at  the  present  time? 

10.  Review  the^  period  of  the  Formation  of  the  Union  by  selecting  the 
striking  incidents  that  could  be  represented  in  a  series  of  floats  for  a 
Fourth  of  July  parade. 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  The  America  of   to-day  compared  with  the  America  of  1790.    Tell 
what  you  think  we  have  gained  and  what  we  have  lost. 

2.  Imagine  that  your  father  and  mother,  your  sister,  and  yourself  are 
traveling  from  Virginia  to  your  new  home  in  Kentucky,   Time,  1780. 
Tell  of  an  adventure  on  the  way. 

3.  Describe  and  then  dramatize  "A  Day  in  School  in  1790."   Introduce 
the  master,  the  dunce,  a  writing-lessor/,  and  a  spelling-lesson. 


REVIEW  213 

REVIEW  OF  THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  UNION 

DURING  the  Revolutionary  War,  Congress  adopted  a  provisional 
form  of  government  set  forth  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
This  agreement  was  not  ratified  by  all  the  States  until  1781.  One 
cause  of  the  delay  was  the  disputed  ownership  of  what  came  to 
be  the  Northwest  Territory.  In  the  interests  of  harmony  the 
various  States  finally  ceded  to  the  Union  their  individual  claims 
to  this  rich  section.  This  new  domain  was  governed  by  the  Ordi 
nance  of  1 787,  which  provided  for  religious  freedom  and  prohibited 
slavery  in  this  region  and  set  aside  portions  of  the  land  for  the 
benefit  of  public  education. 

Under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  Congress  had  no  power 
to  levy  taxes  and  there  was  no  executive  to  enforce  its  decrees. 
The  individual  States  made  tariff  laws  against  one  another  and 
even  endeavored  to  make  commercial  treaties  with  European  na 
tions. 

A  Constitutional  Convention  was  called  in  1787  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union.  In  this  convention  the  two  great  causes  of  dispute 
were  slavery  and  the  fear  of  the  small  States  that  the  large  States 
would  encroach  on  their  liberties.  These  and  other  questions  were 
finally  settled  by  various  compromises,  and  the  great  document, 
which  cemented  the  Union  and  made  us  a  nation,  was  submitted 
to  the  States  to  be  ratified. 

It  gave  to  the  United  States  all  the  powers  necessary  for  an 
effective  central  government,  but  left  all  local  matters  to  the 
individual  States.  It  provided  a  Congress  of  two  houses  to  make 
the  laws,  a  President  to  execute  them,  and  a  Supreme  Court  to 
interpret  these  laws. 

A  bitter  controversy  followed  between  the  Federalists,  who 
urged  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  and  the  Anti-Federalists, 
who  opposed  it.  However,  it  was  ratified  by  nine  States,  the 
necessary  two  thirds;  and  later,  the  other  four  States  followed 
their  example. 

Washington  was  elected  the  first  President  and  inaugurated  in 
1789. 

The  census  of  1790  showed  a  population  of  less  than  four  mill 
ions.  The  roads  were  few  and  far  from  good,  and  the  mails  infre 
quent  and  postage  high.  Beyond  the  Alleghenies  the  Indians  were 
still  an  ever-present  danger.  Schools  were  primitive;  to  read, 
write,  and  cipher  was  the  extent  of  an  ordinary  education. 

Slavery  was  soon  abolished  in  the  Northern  States,  where  it 
had  never  been  profitable.  Eli  Whitney  invented  the  cotton-gin 


214  THE   FORMATION   OF  THE   UNION 

and  made  the  raising  of  cotton  by  slave  labor  so  profitable  that 
slavery  was  firmly  established  in  the  South. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION 

STEPPING  STONES  TOWARD  UNION 

1643.  The  New  England  Confederation  (^[  92), 
1754.  The  Albany  Plan  of  Union  (t  133). 
1765.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress  (^  149). 

1773.  The  Committees  of  Correspondence  (^f  151). 

1774.  The  First  Continental  Congress  (f  156). 
1776.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  (f  166). 
1781.  Articles  of  Confederation  adopted  (f  196). 

1786.  The  Commercial  Convention  at  Annapolis  (^ 

1787.  The  Constitutional  Convention  (^  200). 

1788.  Ratification  of  the  Constitution  (^[  202) 


2oov 


RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  in, 
diaps.  n-xn.  Elson's  United  States,  chaps,  xv,  xvi.  Fiske's  Critical  Period, 
chaps,  ni-v,  vii.  Walker's  Making  of  the  Nation,  chaps,  i-iv.  McLaughlin's 
Confederacy  and  Constitution,  chaps.  I,  vn-ix,  xn-xvin.  Sparks's  Expan 
sion  of  American  People,  chaps,  vii-x,  xn.  McMaster's  United  States, 
vol.  I,  chaps,  i-v.  Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the  West,  vol.  in,  chaps.  I,  vi. 
Bogart's  Economic  History,  chaps,  vm-x.  Hurlbut's  Boone's  Wilderness 
Road.  DuBois's  Suppression  of  the  Slave  Trade,  pp.  48-69.  Lodge's  Hamil 
ton.  Gay's  Madison. 

^  PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book  of  American  History,  chap.  x-How  our 
Grandfathers  Lived.  Elson's  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  I,  chaps. 
ii,  in.^  Blaisdell  and  Ball,  Hero  Stories  from  American  History,  chap.  x. 
Coffin's  Building  of  the  Nation,  chaps.  I,  n,  v-vn.  'Stone  and  Fickett,  Days 
and  Deeds  a  Hundred  Years  Ago.  Shelton's  Salt  Box  House.  Earle's 
Stage.  Coach  and  Tavern  Days.  Burton's  Four  American  Patriots  (Hamil 
ton).  Morris's  Heroes  of  Progress  in  America  (Hamilton,  Whitney,  and  Ful 
ton).  Perry,  Four  American  Inventors  (Fulton,  \Vhitney), 


FICTION 


TEACHERS'  LIST.    Atherton's  Conqueror.   Barr's  Trinity  Bells;  Maid  of 
Maiden  Lane.    Bellamy's  Duke  of  Stockbridge. 
PUPILS'  LIST.  Hale's  Man  Without  a  Country. 


POETRY 


Bryant's  0,  Mother  of  a  Mighty  Race.  Byron's  Washington.  Hopkinson's 
New  Roof  (the  Constitution).    Whittier's  Vow  of  Washington. 


THE    PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT:  RELATIONS  WITH 
FRANCE    AND    GREAT    BRITAIN 

1789-1797 

212.  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists.  During  the  long 
and  sometimes  bitter  debates  over  the  adoption  of  the  Con 
stitution,  it  was  natural  that  men  should  form  very  decided 
opinions  about  the  best 
methods  of  carrying  on 
the  government  of  the 
proposed  union  of  the 
States.  By  the  time  Pre 
sident  Washington  be 
gan  his  Administration, 
two  political  parties  had 
come  into  being  —  Fed 
eralists  and  Anti- Feder 
alists.1  Citizens  joined 
one  party  or  the  other, 
according  to  their  way 
of  thinking;  and, as  is  al 
ways  the  case  in  times  of 
great  political  excite 
ment,  they  were  very  im 
patient  at  the  ideas  of 
those  who  differed  from 
them.2 

1  The  Anti-Federalists  afterwards  called  themselves  Republicans,  and  then 
Democratic- Republicans;  and  still  later,  Democrats.  After  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution,  both  Federalists  and  Anti- Federalists  favored  that  instrument; 
they  then  differed  only  as  to  how  it  should  be  interpreted. 

8  It  was  Washington's  desire  to  have  both  parties  represented  in  the  Govern- 


Painting  by  Sfuart  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 
GEORGE  WASHINGTON 


21 6    THE   PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

213.  "  Liberal  construction  "  and  "  strict  construction." 

The  most  important  question  at  the  beginning  of  the  Govern 
ment  was,  How  much  power  should  the  Nation  have  over 
the  affairs  of  individual  citizens  of  the  various  States?  The 
framers  of  the  Constitution  did  not  make  this  at  all  clear; 
they  left  the  legislative  branch  of  the  Government  (Con 
gress),  together  with  the  judicial  branch  (the  Federal  Su 
preme  Court),  to  decide  that  great  question  in  the  future.1 
Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists  held  opposite  views  as  to 
how  it  should  be  decided :  - 

(a)  Should  Congress  have  the  authority  to  do  anything 
and  everything  in  the  way  of  government  except  only  those 
things  that  the  Constitution  expressly  said  it  should  not  do? 
The  federalists  said  "  yes  "  to  this;  for  they  believed  in 
making  the  Union  a  strong   central  power,  stronger  than 
the  States  composing  it.  They  asked  for  a  "  liberal  construc 
tion  "  of  the  Constitution,  and  "  national  supremacy." 

(b)  Should  Congress  have  such  authority  as  was  expressly 
given  to  it  by  the  Constitution,  and  no  more  ?  Such  was  the 
opinion  of  the  Anti-Federalists,  who  stood  for  "  strict  con 
struction  "  and  "  state  rights."     They  did  not  believe  in 
centralized  power,  for  they  wished  the  States  to  remain 
Stronger  than  the  Nation. 

It  was  to  be  many  long  years  before  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  Nation  should  be  greater  than  the  States  could 
be  settled.  Little  by  little,  however,  the  "  liberal  construc- 
tionists"  won,  for  the  decisions  of  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court  as  to  what  the  Constitution  means,  have  nearly  all 
leaned  to  this  view. 2  We  shall  see  that  the  controversy  led 

ment;  of  the  offices  named  below,  the  Federalists  held  a  majority,  Jefferson  and 
Randolph  being  the  only  Anti-Federalists.  Washington's  first  Cabinet  consisted 
of  four  members:  the  Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  Jefferson;  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton;  the  Secretary  of  War,  General  Henry  Knox 
(these  three  Administrative  Departments  were  the  only  ones  in  existence  at  this 
time) ;  and  the  Attorney-General,  Edmund  Randolph.  The  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  was  John  Jay. 

1  If  a  law  passed  by  Congress  is  not  in  accord  with  the  Constitution,  then 
the  Court  may  annul  it.    (See  page  201.) 

2  Decisions  of  this  kind  began  when  the  court  was  presided  over  by  Chief 
Justice  John  Marshall,  of  Virginia,  who  was  appointed  by  President  John  Adams. 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


217 


at  last  to  the  great  Civil  War,  which  resulted  in  the  final 
triumph  of  the  Federalist  idea  of  "  National  Supremacy  ' 
over  "  State  Rights." 

214.  Hamilton  restores  our  public  credit.  On  account 
of  the  enormous  expense  of  carrying  on  the  Revolutionary 
War,  the  treasury  of  the  new  Government  was  almost  empty, 
and  it  owed  enormous  debts  for  money  borrowed  from  its 
own  citizens  and  Europe  to 
pay,  feed,  and  equip  the  Con 
tinental  army.  Alexander 
Hamilton,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  insisted,  as  a 
matter  of  honesty  and  to 
keep  our  national  credit,  that 
not  only  should  all  these  ob 
ligations  be  promptly  paid 
in  full,  but  the  United  States 
should  pay  the  war  debts  of 
the  several  States,  so  far  as 
they  remained  unpaid;  for 
these  latter,  he  said,  had 
been  incurred  in  defending 
the  Nation.  Most  of  the 
Southern  States,  however,  had  already  cleared  off  a  large 
share  of  their  own  debts  and  did  not  relish  being  taxed  to 
pay  those  of  other  States.1 

While  this  important  matter  was  being  discussed,  a 
heated  argument  arose  over  the  permanent  location  of  the 
Federal  Capital.  Northern  Congressmen  wanted  it  to  be 
somewhere  on  the  Delaware  River,  whereas  Southern  mem 
bers  preferred  to  have  it  on  the  Potomac.  Hamilton  there 
upon  shrewdly  arranged  to  obtain  Northern  votes  for  the 
Potomac  site,  in  exchange  for  Southern  votes  for  his  plan 
of  paying  the  State  debts.  Thus,  to  nearly  every  one's 

His  biographer  says  of  him:  "He  found  the  Constitution  paper,  and  made  it 
power;  he  found  it  a  skeleton,  and  clothed  it  with  flesh  and  blood." 

1  South  Carolina,  however,  favored  the  plan,  because  deeply  in  debt,  but 
Pennsylvania  opposed  it,  because  she  had  nearly  met  her  obligations. 


ALEXANDER    HAMILTON 


218    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

satisfaction,  the  Federal  city,  named  Washington,  after 
the  President,  was  located  in  the  South,1  and  it  was  agreed 
that  all  war  debts,  state  and  national,  should  be  assumed 
by  the  Nation.2 

The  result  was  just  what  Hamilton  said  it  would  be. 
When  people  at  home  and  in  Europe  saw  that  every  dollar 
we  owed  was  going  to  be  paid,  the  national  credit  was  at 
once  firmly  established ;  and  although  the  treasury  was  then 
empty,  we  were  after  this  able  to  borrow  whatever  money 
was  needed  to  carry  on  the  Government.  Hamilton  thereby 
rendered  a  very  great  service  to  the  country,  and  for  this 
his  name  deserves  to  be  remembered  for  all  time.  It  was 
once  said  of  him,  "  He  touched  the  corpse  of  public  credit, 
and  it  sprung  to  its  feet." 

215.  Revenue,  "  Protection,"  and  Federal  Bank.  Hamil 
ton  was  now  called  upon  to  advise  Congress  how  to  raise 
the  money  to  pay  all  of  these  war  debts,  and  to  meet  the 
large  expenses  of  conducting  the  Federal  Government.  On 
his  recommendation  Congress  passed  a  law  providing  that 
duties,  or  taxes,  be  laid  on  certain  imported  goods,  such  as 
spirits,  wine,  tea,  coffee,  molasses,  sugar,  and  articles  made 
in  foreign  factories.  This  "tariff"  was  not  only  to  raise 
revenue,  but  to  "  protect "  our  manufacturers  against  com 
petition  from  goods  made  in  Europe.  Protection  was 
chiefly  demanded  by  the  owners  of  Northern  factories.  The 
Southern  planters  were  strongly  opposed  to  it,  for  they  had 
always  imported  most  of  their  manufactured  articles  from 
Europe  in  American  vessels,  and  did  not  want  the  new  na 
tion  to  tax  them  for  doing  this.  In  later  days  the  continued 

1  That  the  new  city  might  have  room  in  which  to  grow,  it  was  placed  in 
the  midst  of  a  large  tract,  selected  by  President  Washington  himself,  which  was 
named  District  of  Columbia.   The  District,  which  is  governed  by  Congress,  is 
sixty  square  miles  in  extent.    Land  for  the  purpose  was  given  to  the  Federal 
Government  by  Maryland. 

New  York  was  the  first  capital,  and  there  Washington  was  inaugurated.  Then 
for  ten  years  the  capital  was  Philadelphia.  Jefferson  was  the  first  President 
to  be  inaugurated  in  Washington. 

2  The  national  indebtedness,  including  interest,  was  about  $54,000,000,  of 
which  $12,000,000  was  owed  in  Europe,  chiefly  to  France.    In  addition  to  this, 
the  debts  of  the  States  amounted  to  $21,000,000. 


THE  WHISKEY  REBELLION  219 

protest  of  the  South  against  Northern  protection  led  to  a 
serious  quarrel  between  the  two  sections. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Government  was  receiving  a 
good  revenue  from  the  new  duties  and  the  other  forms  of 
taxation  that  followed  in  their  wake.  Daniel  Webster  was 
right  when  he  said  that  Hamilton  "  smote  the  rock  of  public 
revenue,  and  copious  streams  of  wealth  came  forth." 

While  these  revenue  laws  were  being  passed,  Hamilton 
was  busily  drawing  up  still  other  measures  for  the  improve 
ment  of  our  finances,  and  these  were  in  time  adopted  by 
Congress.  Chief  among  them  was  the  establishment  at 
Philadelphia  of  a  Federal  Bank  to  issue  bills  that  should  be 
equally  good  everywhere  throughout  the  nation.  This  was 
welcomed  by  business  men  as  a  great  convenience ;  for  up  to 
that  time  the  only  bills  were  those  which  each  State  had 
issued,  and  they  were  not  always  accepted  in  other  States. 
A  mint  also  was  opened  in  Philadelphia,  for  the  making 
of  gold  and  silver  coin ;  and  a  system  of  national  currency 
was  for  the  first  time  established.1 

216.  The  Whiskey  Rebellion.  Among  the  new,  and  often 
heavy,  taxes  which  Congress  levied  at  the  suggestion  of 
Hamilton  was  one,  in  1794,  on  spirituous  liquors  made  in 
this  country.2  It  was  fiercely  opposed  by  the  mountaineers 
in  western  Pennsylvania,  for  whiskey-making  was  then 
their  principal  business.  They  tarred  and  feathered  one  of 
the  Federal  officers  sent  to  collect  the  tax,  and  engaged  in 
serious  riots,  which  the  Governor  could  not  quell.  President 
Washington  thereupon  sent  to  the  scene  of  disturbance 

1  Americans  had  until  this  time  kept  their  accounts  in  English  pounds,  shill 
ings,  and  pence;  but  thereafter  the  legal  unit  was  the  dollar,  divided  into  ten 
dimes  or^a  hundred  cents.   This  decimal  system  is  far  easier  to  reckon  in  than 
the  English  Currency.    Virtually  all  of  the  leading  European  countries,  except 
Great  Britain,  now  have  some  form  of  decimal  currency. 

2  There  was  much  opposition  to  this  method  of  raising  revenue.  The  people 
have  always  disliked  to  pay  to  the  Federal  Government  "direct "  taxes  —  that 
is,  those  levied  on  their  incomes,  their  business,  or  their  property ;  for  they  do  not 
relish  having  tax  collectors  inquire  into  their  private  affairs.    They  have  much 
preferred  to  pay  "indirect"  taxes  on  the  articles  they  buy,  or  on  foreign-made 
goods  imported  through  custom-houses;  for  this  does  not  require  them  to  give 
information  about  their  personal  matters. 


220    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

13,000  militiamen,  who  restored  order.  This  was  his  method 
of  teaching  the  important  and  very  necessary  lesson  that 
Federal  laws  must  be  obeyed  everywhere  throughout  the 
Union. 

217.  France  asks  for  American  aid,  and  is  refused.  The 
people  of  France,  who  had  long  been  fretting  under  the  rule 
of  the  aristocrats,  at  last  rose  in  rebellion,   formed  a  re 
public,  in  1792,  and  beheaded  their  unpopular  King.    This 
led  them  into  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  for  the  latter  had 
sympathized  with  the  dead  ruler.  The  leaders  of  the  French 
Republic  sent  over  to  America  an  agent  named  Genet,  to 
persuade  this  nation  to  help  them  with  money,  men,  and 
supplies,  in  return  for  the  great  assistance  that  France  had 
given  us  during  the  Revolutionary  War. 

President  Washington,  however,  strongly  advised  Ameri 
cans  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  this  war.  Popular  sympathy 
was  very  naturally  with  France ;  but  the  President  pointed 
out  to  his  countrymen  that  if  we  meddled  in  European 
affairs,  we  might  continually  be  getting  into  trouble;  more 
over,  said  he,  we  could  not  at  that  time  afford  either  money 
or  men  to  go  to  war  with  anybody.  He  therefore  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  that  our  nation  would  remain  neu 
tral,  and  he  obliged  the  French  Government  to  order  Genet 
to  return  home.  This  made  the  French  very  angry,  and  their 
agents  tried  to  stir  up  Americans  to  force  him  to  change  his 
decision.  As  usual,  however,  he  remained  firm,  and  in  time 
the  people  came  to  see  that  he  was  right.1 

218.  Great  Britain  treats  us  harshly.  This  trouble  with 
France  was  not  the  only  difficulty  our  nation  had  at  that 
time  with  European  powers.     Great  Britain  had  made  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  us,  after  the  Revolutionary  War;  but 
although  she  was  no  longer  fighting  the  United  States  with 

1  Under  the  treaty  of  alliance  made  in  1 778  (see  page  175)  between  the  United 
States  and  King  Louis  XVI  of  France,  each  Government  agreed  to  help  the 
other  in  case  of  war.  The  leaders  of  the  French  Republic  claimed  that  this 
bound  our  nation  to  help  them  fight  Great  Britain.  But  Washington  said  that 
the  treaty  was  made  with  a  monarch  now  dead,  who  had  no  successor;  he  de 
clared,  moreover,  that  it  referred  only  to  defensive  wars,  whereas  the  French 
began  the  attack  on  Great  Britain. 


JAY'S  TREATY  221 

her  army  and  navy,  she  was  in  other  ways  greatly  injuring 
us:  — 

(a)  Many  of  our  merchant  vessels  that  were  engaged  in 
the  business  of  carrying  cargoes  of  food  to  France  or  to  the 
French  colonies,  had  been  captured  by  Great  Britain.    At 
the  same  time,  however,  France  was  giving  us  trouble,  for 
she  had  captured  several  of  our  vessels  engaged  in  carrying 
similar  cargoes  to  British  ports. 

(b)  Great  Britain  was  taking  from  our  vessels  naturalized 
American  sailors  who  had  once  been  her  subjects,  and  often 
with  great  brutality  "  impressing  "  them  into  her  own  navy. 
Her  plea  was  that  these  men  were  still  citizens  of  the  mother 
land;  for  no  British  subject,  she  said,  could  change  his 
nationality. 

(c)  She  was  interfering  with,   and  trying  to  stop,  our 
trade  with  the  West  Indies,  because  there  we  competed  with 
the  business  of  her  merchants. 

(d)  She  owed  our  citizens  for  thousands  of  slaves  that 
had  been  taken  away  by  British  officers  and  exiled  Loyal 
ists  at  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

(e)  She  was  still  keeping  possession  of  several  of  our  forts 
Jying  south  of  and  near  the  international  boundary.    She 
said  that  she  would  continue  to  hold  these  strongholds 
until  the  States  paid  certain  debts  due  to  Loyalists  and 
British  merchants  for  property  taken  from  them  by  Amer 
icans  during  the  Revolution. 

219.  Jay's  Treaty.  This  unsatisfactory  condition  of  af 
fairs  lasted  until  1794,  when  there  was  signed  at  London  a 
compact  between  the  two  nations,  known  as  Jay's  Treaty.1 
There  were  several  adjustments  effected  by  this  compact: 
arrangements  were  made  by  which  the  United  States  was 
to  pay  the  Loyalist  claims,  and  Great  Britain  was  to  pay 
the  claims  of  our  citizens  against  her  for  the  seizure  of 
American  ships ;  the  British  agreed  to  evacuate  the  Amer 
ican  forts  in  1796;  and  citizens  of  both  countries  were  now 
free  to  trade  with  each  other. 

1  Because  negotiated  by  John  Jay,  then  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
who  had  been  sent  to  England  as  American  commissioner  for  this  purpose. 


222    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

But  nearly  all  the  people  of  the  United  States  were  in 
tensely  indignant  at  the  treaty,  and  did  not  wish  the  Senate 
to  ratify  it.  This  was  because  it  avoided  the  two  leading 
matters  of  dispute.  Great  Britain  had  not  consented  to 
recognize  the  right  of  British  subjects  to  change  their  na 
tionality  and  become  American  citizens ;  and  no  assurance 
was  given  that  neutral  American  ships  trading  with  an 
enemy  of  Great  Britain  would  be  unmolested.  Jay  was 
so  unpopular  that  effigies  of  him  were  burned  in  several 
cities.  Hamilton,  who  urged  that  the  treaty  be  accepted, 
was  stoned  in  New  York  while  addressing  a  crowd;  and 
besides  other  disturbances,  there  were  riots  in  front  of  .the 
houses  of  British  consuls. 

For  a  time  even  the  President  lost  much  of  his  popular 
ity,1  because  he  also  favored  the  treaty.  But  he  plainly  saw 
that  unless  the  Senate  accepted  it,  we  should  probably  at 
once  have  another  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  for  this  we 
were  not  then  prepared.  An  unsatisfactory  treaty  was  to  be 
preferred,  he  said,  to  a  disastrous  war,  so  the  Senate  con 
firmed  the  agreement.  What  Jay's  Treaty  really  did  was  to 
postpone  war  with  Great  Britain  for  eighteen  years. 

220.  Relations  with  the   Indians.  While   these  stirring 
events  were  taking  place  the  Indians  north  of  the  Ohio 
River  were  making  trouble.     They  had  become  alarmed 
over  the  great  number  of  white  settlers  now  pouring  into 
their  old  hunting-grounds  and  crowding  them  out.     For 
several  years  they  waged  a  destructive  war  against  the 
unwelcome    newcomers.     But   finally  they  were    severely 
punished  by  General  Anthony  Wayne,  the  hero  of   Stony 
Point,  in  a  great  battle  at  Fallen  Timbers,   near  Maumee 
Rapids,  in  Ohio.    During  the  next  fifteen  years  there  was 
little  disturbance  from  the  Indians  of  this  region. 

221.  Washington's  Farewell  Address.  President  Washing 
ton  served  two  terms  of  four  years  each.   The  country  had 
prospered  under  his  Administration ;  manufactures  had  in- 

1  Washington  was  much  mortified  over  the  abuse  showered  on  him  at  this 
time. 


WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL 


223 


creased,  commerce  showed  much  growth,  and  three  new 
States  —  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  —  had  been 
added  to  the  Union.  Large  numbers  of  his  fellow  citizens 
suggested  that  he  serve  as  President  for  a  third  term.  He 
was,  however,  not  only  wearied  from  the  constant  worry  of 
public  life  and  therefore  eager  for  a  few  quiet  years  at  his 
Mount  Vernon  home,  but  he  believed  that  it  would  be 
better  for  the  coun 
try  to  have  a  change 
in  the  office  of  Presi 
dent. 

A  few  months  be 
fore  leaving  the  presi 
dential  chair,  Wash 
ington  published  in 
the  newspapers  a 
Farewell  Address  to 
the  people  of  the 
United  States.1  This 
is  one  of  the  noblest 
and  most  inspiring 
papers  that  has  ever 
been  issued  by  any  of  our  chief  executives.  In  it  he  ap 
pealed  to  Americans  to  stand  for  high  principles  in  their 
Government  —  to  cultivate  a  "  cordial,  habitual,  and  im 
movable  attachment  "  to  the  Union;  to  make  no  "  perma 
nent  alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world,"  and 
to  be  just  and  act  in  good  faith  toward  all  other  nations. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  would  probably  have  been  the  result  if  our  country  had  shirked 
its  duty  of  paying  the  Revolutionary  debts? 

2.  State  the  difference  between  a  tariff  for  protection  and  a  tariff  for 
revenue. 

3.  How  did  Washington  make  the  Whiskey  Rebellion  serve  a  good  pur 
pose? 


MOUNT  VERNON 
Washington's  mansion  on  the  Potomac  River 


1  It  first  appeared  in  the  Daily  Advertiser  of  Philadelphia,  September  19, 1796. 


224    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

4.  Show  that  Washington's  policy  toward  the  French  Revolution  was 
wise.    Explain  how  it  has  influenced  our  subsequent  history. 

5.  You  notice  that  the  writers  of  this  book  give  two  points  of  view  regard 
ing  Jay  s  Treaty.    Select  a  current  question  of  importance  to  your 
community   your  State,  or  the  Nation,  and  save  clippings  from  peri 
odicals  on^both  sides  of  the  question,  grouping  them  as  "For,"  or 

Against. 

6.  Read  aloud  Washington's  Farewell  Address.    Make  a  list  of  some  of 
the  wise  suggestions  in  it. 

7.  Lodge,  in  his  Life  of  Washington,  says:  "The  goodness  and  kindness 
ot  a  man  s  heart,  however,  are  much  more  truly  shown  in  the  little  de 
tails  of  life  than  in  the  great  matters  which  affect  classes  or  communi 
ties.     Washington  was  considerate  and  helpful  to  all  men."     Bring 
incidents  to  class  to  illustrate  this  side  of  his  character. 

8.  Again,  Lodge  says,  "A  soldier  by  instinct  and  experience,  he  never 
grew  indifferent  to  the  miseries  of  war."  Prove  both  the  first  and  second 
parts  of  this  statement. 

9.  What  events  happened  in  Washington's  Administration  which  showed 
his  moral  courage? 

10.  Learn  the  stanza  beginning,  "Soldier  and  Statesman,  rarest  unison," 
from  Lowell  s  Under  the  Old  Elm.    Explain  its  meaning  by  telling  the 
story  that  justifies  each  statement. 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  A  group  of  veterans  see  Washington  pass  in  his  coach  and  six.   They 
fall  into  conversation  about  the  man  as  he  appeared  on  various  occa 
sions.    One  saw  him  at  Braddock's  defeat;  one  describes  him  when 
crossing  the  Delaware;  one  heard  him  praying  at  Valley  Forge-  another 
saw  him  when   the  British   surrendered  at  Yorktown.    Relate    and 
dramatize  the  conversation. 

2.  A  crowd  of  mountaineers   in  western   Pennsylvania  is  angrily  con 
fronting  a  group  of  men  come  to  collect  the  whiskey  tax.    One  of  the 
mountaineers  makes  a  speech  urging  war.    Another  says  he  will  not 
fight  against  the  Government  for  which  he  fought  at  Trenton  and 
Brandywine.    (fl)  Write  the  latter  speech,    (b]  Dramatize  the  scene. 

3.  Describe  some  act  of  Washington's  Administration  you  particularly 
admire  and  tell  why  you  admire  it. 

4.  Suppose  you  were  a  Federalist  living  in  Washington's  Administration. 
\\  rite  a  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  an  Anti-Federalist,  explaining  your 
position  and  try  to  show  him  wherein  you  believe  he  is  wrong. 


CHAPTER   XXI 


THE   WAR   WITH    FRANCE:    ALIEN    AND    SEDITION    LAWS: 
NULLIFICATION    RESOLUTIONS 

I797-I80I 

222.  Our  War  with  France.  Washington's  successor  was 
John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  a  Federalist.1  Just  as  he 
came  into  office,  France  was  trying  to  take  revenge  upon 
the  United  States  for  not  help 
ing  her  to  fight  Great  Britain, 
also  for  signing  Jay's  Treaty. 
Her  cruisers  captured  some 
of  our  merchant  vessels  out 
at  sea;  but  what  was  worse, 
some  of  her  private  agents 
went  secretly  to  the  Ameri 
can  envoys  in  Paris,  and  said 
that  the  French  Government 
would  make  war  on  us  unless 
we  paid  a  heavy  bribe  to  its 
principal  officers. 

Adams  indignantly  noti 
fied  Congress  of  this  insolent 
proposal ;  but  in  his  message  he 
prudently  called  the  French 

agents  X,  Y,  and  Z,  without  revealing  their  names.  The 
documents  which  he  presented  were  therefore  popularly 
known  as  the  "  X,  Y,  Z  Papers."  Everywhere,  Americans 

1  John  Adams  was  born  in  1735  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  graduated  from  Harvard 
College,  and  was  a  lawyer.  While  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  he 
strongly  advocated  separation  from  Great  Britain.  At  the  close  of  the  Revo 
lution  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  arrange  the  treaty  of  peace.  He  also 
served  for  several  years  as  our  envoy  in  France,  and  as  our  minister  to  Lon 
don.  Adams  was  selected  as  the  presidential  candidate  of  the  Federalists 
by  the  leaders  of  that  party,  for  then  there  were  no  national  party  conventions. 
He  died  in  1826. 


JOHN  ADAMS 


226    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

were   intensely  angry  at  France,  their  watchword  being, 
"  Millions  for  defense;  not  one  cent  for  tribute!  " 

France  retorted  by  attacking  American  vessels.  Our 
army  was  reorganized,  with  Washington  as  its  commander, 
but  the  fighting  was  wholly  on  sea.1  Each  nation  captured 
several  of  the  other's  vessels;  but  the  American  navy  was 
gradually  getting  the  better  of  it,  when  Napoleon  Bona 
parte,2  who  had  just  come  to  power  in  France,  made  peace 
with  us  (i8oo).3 

223.  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws.  While  this  war  was  in 
progress,  still  more  serious  trouble  was  brewing  at  home. 
Many  of  the  newspapers  in  the  United  States  were  at  that 
time  conducted   by  men,  mostly  foreigners,  who  favored 
France.   These  editors  made  a  practice  of  viciously  abusing 
President  Adams  and  his  Government,  and  trying  to  get 
our  country  into  trouble  with  Great  Britain.  Congress  tried 
to  check  these  offenses  by  passing  two  laws,  1798:  - 

(a)  The  Alien  Law  authorized  the  President  to  banish 
from  the  country  any  foreigner  whose  presence  here  was 
harmful  to  the  nation.  This  law  was  never  put  in  force. 

(b)  The  Sedition  Law  provided  for  the  punishment  of 
persons  who  spoke  or  wrote  maliciously  about  the  President 
or  the  Government.  Under  this  law  a  number  of   persons 
were  punished. 

224.  Virginia  and  Kentucky  pass  Nullification  Resolu 
tions.   These  laws  aroused  the  fierce  anger  of  the  Demo 
cratic-Republicans.     They  declared  that  such  legislation 
concentrated  power  in  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Govern- 

1  The  outbreak  of  this  war  led  to  the  establishment  of  our  Navy  Depart 
ment,  which  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress,  April  30,  1798. 

2  Napoleon  rose  to  be  the  national  hero  of  France,  because  of  his  victories- 
as  a  general  in  her  wars  with  other  European  nations.  The  people  first  made 
him  head  of  the  French  Republic  (1799),  and  then  Emperor  (1804).    In  1814 
he  was  forced  by  his  allied  foes  to  abdicate,  -and  for  several  months  was  im 
prisoned  on  the  island  of  Elba;  but  he  escaped,  and  for  a  few  months  again 
ruled  France,  until  defeated  at  Waterloo  (June  18,  1815).    He  died  (1821)  a 
prisoner  of  the  British  on  the  lonely  island  of  St.  Helena,  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

8  During  the  great  popular  excitement  attending  this  war,  Joseph  Hopkinson, 
a  Philadelphia  lawyer,  wrote  the  stirring  song,  "  Hail  Columbia,"  whichat  once 
became  a  favorite  throughout  the  country. 


VIRGINIA  AND   KENTUCKY   RESOLUTIONS     227 


ment,  interfered  with  freedom  of  the 
press  and  freedom  of  speech,  and  was 
not  according  to  the  intent  of  the  Con 
stitution.  The  legislatures  of  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  went  so  far  as  boldly 
to  resolve  that  these  obnoxious  Fed 
eral  laws  were  "  unconstitutional," 
therefore  "  void  and  of  no  force,"  and 
that  the  States  would  be  justified  in 
not  allowing  them  to  be  enforced 
within  their  borders.1 

Congress  soon  repealed  the  two 
laws  that  had  aroused  such  opposi 
tion.  But  the  passage  of  the  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  Resolutions  continued 
to  be  events  of  great  importance,  be 
cause  of  their  new  and  startling  claim 
that  Federal  laws  might  be  nullified2 
by  States  that  did  not  approve  of 
them.  Those  who  believed  in  "  strict 
construction"  of  the  Constitution, or 
" state  rights,"  were  inclined  to  favor 
this  doctrine,  that  the  Constitution 
was  merely  an  agreement  between 
*  'sovereign  States, ' '  which  any  of  them 
might  break  whenever  they  wished. 
The  Federalists  pointed  out,  how 
ever,  that  if  nullification  were  to  be 
permitted  whenever  a  State  disliked 
some  Federal  law,  there  would  soon 
be  no  Union  at  all.  Thus  the  mo 
mentous  question  as  to  wrhether  or 
not  the  rule  of  the  Union  was  to  be 

1  The  Virginia  Resolutions  were  written   by 
Madison,  and  were  not  so  bitter  as  those  of  Ken 
tucky,  which  were  drafted  by  Jefferson. 

2  That  is,  declared  not  binding  on  the  object 
ing  State. 


.  IT  is  with  the  deepeft  grief  ftal 
»e  announce  to1  the  public  the  deatl 
Our  tmjt  dj/linguijhed  fcllow<itf 
Lieut.  Central  George  Wajhing- 
on.  He  died  at  Mount  Vernon  ctf 
Saturday  evening,  the  t3th  infl.  o. 
in  inflammatory  affection  of  ttre 
hroat,  which  ^ut  a  period  10  his  ex. 
itence  in  13  hours. 

The  grief  which  we  fuffer  on  Tllli 
ruly  mournful  occafion,  would  tx 
Q  fome  degree  aleviated,  if  v?e  pof 
cDed  abiliries  to  do  julticc  to  tb( 
writs  of  »his  lUu/lriotu  benefa&er  g) 
nankin  J;  but,  confcious  of  our  in 
eriority,  we  ftuink  from  the  fubli 
miry  of  the  fubjed.  To  the  itupar 
ial  and  eloquent  biftorian,  there 
fore,  we  confign  the  high  and  grate 
ul  office  of  exhibiting  the  life  o 
jearge  Wafhington  (o  the  prefers! 
ige,  and  to  generations  yet  uubom 
ik  a  perfedl  model  of  all  thit »»  v;r 
uotu,  noble,  great ,  and  dignified  it 
man.  Our  feelings,  however,  wil 
not  permit  us  to  forbear  obfcr» 
hat  the  very  difintereft  d  and  tm 
portant  fervices  rendered  by  Georgt 
ingtiit  to  thefe  United  btatja 
both  In  the  Field  and  La  ihe  Cabinet 
fiave  ercfled  ia  the  hearts  of  hi 
countrymen,  monumeats  of  Cncer. 
and  unbounded  gratitude,  wbicl 
he  mouldering  hand  of  Time  can 
"Ot  deface ;  and  that  in  every  qi 
er  of  the  Globe,  where  a  tree  Co 
«.wiiuent  U  ranked  atnongft  th 
choice/I  bleffings  of  Providence,  on 
virtue,  morality,  religion,  and  / atria 
are  Kfpefted,  THE  NAME  o 
WASHINGTON  WILL  BE  HELD  «< 
veneration,  . 

EDITORIAL  UPON  THE 
DEATH  OF  WASHINGTON 

In  the  New  York  Gazette 


228    THE  PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

supreme  over  that  of  the  States  had  again  come  to  the 
front  to  threaten  the  welfare  of  the  Nation. 

225.  Death  of  Washington.  While  the  country  was  being 
agitated  over  this  serious  dispute,  upon  which  its  prosperity 
so  much  depended,  Washington  died  at  Mount  Vernon, 
December  14,  1799,  when  he  was  sixty-seven  years  old. 

During  the  Revolution  there  were  some  who  could  not 
appreciate  his  greatness  as  a  military  leader.  While  he  was 
President  he  was  viciously  attacked  by  his  political  oppo 
nents;  he  was  accused  of  being  an  aristocrat,  of  not  sym 
pathizing  with  the  common  people,  and  even  of  seeking  to 
be  king.  But  before  his  death  Americans  of  every  class,  rich 
and  poor,  whether  they  agreed  with  him  in  politics  or 
not,  had  come  to  love  and  venerate  the  nation's  leading 
citizen  and  they  sincerely  mourned  his  death.1  Congress 
paid  special  honors  to  his  memory;  and  even  European 
powers  sent  us  glowing  words  of  praise  for  the  man  who,  as 
one  of  the  orators  of  that  day  well  said,  was  "  first  in  war, 
first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen."  2 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  stand  would  you  have  taken  towards  the  Alien  and  Sedition 
Laws?    Why?    Should  there  be  any  limit  put  upon  freedom  of  the 
press  and  freedom  of  speech  in  this  country? 

2.  Locate  the  capital  of  the  United  States.    How  long  has  it  been  the 
capital?    What  places  in  and  about  the  city  would  you  be  specially 
interested  in  visiting?   See  Washington  (city)  in  the  index. 

3.  Why  should  not  a  State  be  allowed  to  nullify  an  act  of  Congress? 

4.  What,  means  is  provided  by  the  Constitution  for  deciding  whether  an 
act  is  constitutional  or  not? 

1  Jefferson,  who  at  times  had  severely  criticized  Washington,  wrote,  "He 
was,  indeed,  in  every  sense  of  the  words  a  wise,  a  good,  and  a  great -man."  A  little 
later,  Jefferson  said  that  he  was  "Our  first  and  greatest  Revolutionary  char 
acter,  whose  preeminent  services  have  entitled  him  to  the  first  place  in  his  coun 
try's  love,  and  destined  for  him  the  fairest  page  in  the  volume  of  faithful  his 
tory." 

2  This  phrase  was  contained  in  resolutions  presented  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  at  Washington,  December  19,  1779,  by  John  Marshall,  who  in  a  fa 
mous  eulogy  announced  the  death  of  Washington;  but  the  resolutions  them 
selves  were  written  by  General  Henry  Lee.  Washington's  birthday,  February 
22,  is  a  legal  holiday  in  every  State.  The  first  recorded  celebration  of  this 
event  was  at  New  York,  in  1783. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT     229 

5.  Turn  to  the  index  of  this  history  to  determine  what  attempts  have 
been  made  to  nullify  acts  of  Congress.    (See  "  Nullification.") 

6.  When  was  there  a  period  during  which  each  State  could  nullify  an 
act  of  Congress?   What  was  the  effect  of  such  action  then? 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Look  up  the  life  of  John  Adams  and  choose  an  incident  to  tell  orally. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  girl  in  Baltimore.   One  evening  your  father  reads 
an  account  of  the  "  X,  Y,  Z  Papers  "  and  his  anger  runs  high.    Then 
you  play  on  the  harpsichord  while  he  sings  a  new  song,  "Hail,  Colum 
bia!"   Describe  the  scene. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  child  visiting  Washington,  the  new  capital. 
Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  the  old  capital  describing  the  new  town. 

4.  Choose  successive  events  in  the  life  of  Washington,  each  member  of 
the  class  taking  one  of  the  events  and  relate  them  in  order  —  the  whole 
forming  a  brief  biography. 


CHAPTER   XXII 


THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE:   THE  LEWIS  AND  CLARK  EXPEDI 
TION:    RELATIONS    WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    FRANCE 

I8OI-I8O9 

226.  Election  of  President  Jefferson.    President  Adams 
was  a  candidate  for  reelection;   but  largely  owing  to  the 

unpopularity  of  the  Alien  and 
Sedition  Laws  he  was  defeated 
by  Thomas  Jefferson,  leader 
of  the  Democratic-Republicans.1 
Jefferson  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  men  in  our  history. 
He  was  a  fine  scholar,  and  could 
with  ease  read  and  speak  several 
languages.  Duringtheeightyears 
of  his  presidency  he  helped  to  in 
crease  the  growth  and  commerce 
of  the  United  States  and  to  spread 
popular  education.  He  met  peo 
ple  in  a  friendly,  sociable  way, 
and  showed  his  interest  in  their 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON  affairs.  His  clothing  and  the  fur- 

1  Under  Article  II,  section  3,  of  the  Constitution  (now  superseded  by  the 
Twelfth  Amendment),  the  presidential  electors  were  to  choose  two  eminent  citi 
zens  as  President  and  Vice-President.  There  was  but  one  ballot,  each  elector 
naming  two  candidates;  the  man  receiving  the  most  votes  was  elected  Presi 
dent  and  the  one  receiving  the  next  highest  number,  Vice-President.  This  led, 
in  the  third  election  (1796),  to  men  of  opposite  parties  getting  the  two  offices 

President  Adams  and  Vice-President  Jefferson;  whereat  there  was  much 
popular  discontent,  for  it  was  believed  that  the  President  and  Vice-President 
ought  to  be  of  the  same  party. 

In  the  contest  about  which  we  are  now  reading  seventy-three  electors  voted 
for  Jefferson,  a  like  number  for  Aaron  Burr  of  New  York,  and  sixty-five  for 
John  Adams.  This  was  a  "tie"  between  the  two  highest.  The  House  of  Re 
presentatives  was  therefore  obliged  to  decide,  after  a  long  and  exciting  contest, 
and  chose  Jefferson  for  President  and  Burr,  who  was  very  unpopular,  for  Vice- 


THE   PROVINCE  OF  LOUISIANA  231 

nishings  of  his  house  were  plain,  and  he  disliked  extravagance 
of  any  kind.  Ceremony  and  parade  displeased  him,  and  on 
becoming  President  he  did  away  with  the  formalities  which 
IVashington  had  introduced  and  which  Adams  had  kept  up.1 

227.  Americans  covet  the  Province  of  Louisiana.  Spain, 
although  she  had  become  a  weak  nation,  still  owned  the 
Province  of  Louisiana,  consisting  of  nearly  a  million  square 
miles  at  the  mouth  and  westward  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
For  many  years  our  settlers  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Ohio  had  sent  their  supplies,  grain,  and  live  stock  in  flat- 
boats  down  the  Mississippi  to  the  Spanish  city  of  New 
Orleans,  where  they  were  reloaded  into  seagoing  vessels 
bound  for  Atlantic  ports.  Spain  had  frequently  tried  to 
prevent  this  commerce;  in  1795,  however,  she  made  a  satis 
factory  arrangement  with  the  United  States,  and  Americans 
supposed  that  there  would  be  no  more  difficulty  on  that 
score. 

But  in  1802,  during  Jefferson's  administration,  Spain 
suddenly  revoked  her  agreement  with  us,  and  the  West 
was  greatly  excited  over  this  reclosing  of  the  river.  More- 
President.  This  result  also  displeased  the  people,  who  thereupon  insisted  on 
amending  the  Constitution  (Twelfth  Amendment,  1804),  so  that  the  electors, 
must  cast  separate  ballots  for  President  and  Vice-President.  In  reality,  how 
ever,  they  now  merely  go  through  the  form  of  voting  for  the  men  whom  the 
people  have  themselves  already  chosen  at  a  general  election. 

1  Jefferson  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1743.  Graduating  from  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary,  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Continental  Congress  and  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence.  After  the  Revolution,  he  was  for  a  time  governor  of  Virginia,  five 
years  acted  as  our  minister  to  France,  and  served  as  Secretary  of  State  until 
the  close  of  1793.  After  being  President,  he  retired  to  private  life,  founded  the 
University  of  Virginia,  and  died  in  1826  at  his  home  "Monticello,"  near 
Charlottesville  in  that  State.  ' 

His  simple  tastes  were  shown  on  his  first  inauguration  day,  when  he  wore 
ordinary  clothes,  and  with  a  few  friends  walked  from  his  boarding-house  to  the 
unfinished  Capitol  in  Washington,  where  he  took  the  oath  of  office.  He  would 
often  ride  to  the  Capitol  on  a  horse,  instead  of  in  a  coach,  as  President  Washing 
ton  had  done.  Visitors  were  allowed  to  call  on  Jefferson  at  any  time,  whereas 
Washington  held  weekly  reception  days.  Jefferson  entertained  all  manner  of 
people  without  formality;  one  of  his  visitors  found  him  dressed  in  a  "red  waist 
coat,  yarn  stockings,  and  slippers  down  at  the  heel."  Washington,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  always  most  carefully  attired.  Jefferson  also  endeared  himself  to 
many  people  by  his  fondness  for  hunting  and  horseback  riding,  popular  sports 
of  the  day,  in  which  he  excelled. 


232    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 


over,  many  of  our  frontiersmen  were  saying  that  the  United 
States  ought  now  to  own  the  trans-Mississippi  region;  we 
needed  it,  they  claimed,  for  our  westward  expansion.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  hundreds  of  Americans,  among  them  the 
great  hunter  Daniel  Boone,  were  already  living  west  of  the 
river  on  land  claims  obtained  by  them  from  Spain;  they 
'were  hoping  and  waiting  for  the  time  when  the  United 
States  should  occupy  that  fertile  wilderness. 

228.  The  United  States  purchases  Louisiana.  The  change 
was  nearer  than  any  one  supposed  possible.  It  came  about 
in  this  way :  Napoleon  had  been  ambitious  to  found  another 
New  France  in  America;  so  in  1800  he  had  induced  Spain 

to  hand  over  to  him  the 
Province  of  Louisiana. 
President  Jefferson  and 
the  Westerners  were 
much  alarmed  at  this. 
They  saw  danger  ahead 
of  us  if  a  European  pow 
er  stronger  than  Spain 
began  to  control  the 
Mississippi  River  and 
to  block  not  only  our 
commerce  over  that 
stream  but  our  overland 
progress  toward  the  Pa 
cific. 

But,  fortunately  for 
us,  it  happened  that, 
before  Napoleon  could 
place  any  of  his  soldiers 
in  Louisiana,  he  was 
again  at  war  with  Great 
Britain,  and  all  of  the 
men  and  money  he  could  get  together  were  needed  at  home 
to  carry  on  this  contest.  Moreover,  he  now  feared  that, 
even  should  he  colonize  Louisiana,  the  British,  who  also 


fainting  by  Tliulstrup 

TAKING   POSSESSION    OF  LOUISIANA 

in  the  background  is  the  old  Spanish  Cabildo,  or  Court 
House,  New  Orleans 


THE   PURCHASE  OF  LOUISIANA  233 

coveted  the  trans- Mississippi,  might  soon  reach  out  from 
Canada  and  capture  it  from  him.  He  thereforer  in  1803, 
secretly  offered  the  province  to  the  United  States  for 
§15,000,000,  which  was  less  than  three  cents  an  acre.  Jef 
ferson  promptly  accepted  the  bargain,  and  thereby  proved 
himself  a  wise  and  far-seeing  statesman.  By  the  stroke  of 
a  pen  he  acquired  for  us  the  heart  of  the  continent  as  far 
west  as  the  crest  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  thereby 
virtually  doubled  the  area  of  the  nation.1  It  is  said  that 
on  signing  the  great  transfer,  Napoleon,  who  was  glad  to  get 
the  money  for  his  war,  showed  that  he  also  fully-  realized 
what  a  benefit  it  would  be  to  us;  for  he  exclaimed,  "  This 
accession  of  territory  establishes  forever  the  power  of  the 
United  States.  I  have  given  to  England  a  maritime  rival 
that  will  sooner  or  later  humble  her  pride." 

229.  Some  results  of  the  purchase.  This  splendid  pur 
chase  had  several  important  results:  - 

(a)  Had  Napoleon  retained  and  colonized  Louisiana  we 
should  have  had  endless  disputes,  and  possibly  war,  with 
France  about  our  Western  boundaries.     From  this  grave 
danger  we  were  now  saved. 

(b)  No  longer  might  Great  Britain  hope  to  acquire  the 
trans-Mississippi  region,  and  thus  close  our  westward  patn. 

(c)  The  uneasy  Westerners  were  now  satisfied,  for  the} 
were  free  to  navigate  the  Mississippi  River,  from  its  source, 
to  its  mouth. 

(d)  The  immigration  movement  from  Europe  was  soon 
strengthened,  for  a  vast  area  of  cheap  lands  beyond  the 
Mississippi  was  awaiting  settlement.2 

1  The  purchase  included  the  present  States  of  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Ne 
braska,  and  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  parts  of  the  States  of  Minnesota, 
Kansas,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Oklahoma,  and  Louisiana.    The  total 
area  was  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  United  States  territory  prior  to  1803, 
but  larger  than  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy 
combined. 

2  Another  result  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  was  to  make  it  easier  than  it  other 
wise  would  have  been,  to  put  an  end  to  a  dangerous  political  conspiracy  set  on 
foot  by  Aaron  Burr  in  1805-06.   Although  a  man  of  great  ability,  he  was  a  self- 
seeking  politician,  for  whom  few  people  had  respect.  He  sought  to  organize  a 
military  expedition  of  Western  settlers,  to  create  a  new  government   in  our 


234    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 


THE   UNITED  STATES   BEFORE  1803 

230.  The  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition.  The  most  imme 
diate  result  of  the  purchase  was  an  exploring  expedition, 
headed  by  Captains  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark, 
sent  by  Jefferson  in  1804*  to  gather  information  about 
the  Far  West  and  to  open  up  the  fur  trade  with  Indian 
tribes  living  in  the  valleys  of  the  Missouri  and  Columbia 
Rivers.  The  two  captains  and  forty-three  companions  made 
their  long  and  toilsome  journey  up  the  great  Missouri,  in 
three  large  boats.  Some  of  the  party  generally  walked  along, 
the  banks  to  hunt  game  and  study  the  plants  and  ^ftijj 
animals.  After  many  thrilling  experiences  with  fierce  cur 
rents,  inclement  weather,  grizzly  bears,  and  hostile  Indians, 

Southwest,  of  which  he  should  be  the  head.  But  his  plans  fell  through,  be 
cause  the  frontiersmen  were  now  satisfied  with  their  chances  of  westward 
growth.  Burr  was  tried  for  treason  in  trying  to  break  up  the  Union;  but  no 
thing  could  be  proved  against  him  in  the  courts,  and  he  was  set  free. 

1  Lewis  started  westward  from  Washington  on  July  5,  1803,  a  few  days  after 
news  was  received  in  that  city  of  the  purchase  from  Napoleon.  Clark  joined 
him  in  Kentucky  with  the  other  men  of  the  expedition.  The  party  spent  the  win 
ter  of  1803-04  in  Illinois,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River,  making 
boats  and  gathering  supplies  for  the  journey,  which  began  May  14,  1804. 


THE  LEWIS  AND   CLARK   EXPEDITION         235 


B   R  UT 


r^ 


THE    UNITED   STATES   AFTER  1803 

they  spent  a  long,  bitterly  cold,  and  almost  starving  win 
ter  not  far  from  the  present  Bismarck,  North  Dakota. 

The  expedition  made  a  fresh  start  the  next  spring,  this 
time  with  thirty-two  in  the  party.1  After  entering  the  nar 
row  gorge  called  the  Gates  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 2  they 
were  often  obliged  to  haul  their  boats  around  difficult  rapids 
and  waterfalls.  When  the  hardy  adventurers  reached  a 
small  mountain  spring  3  which  they  decided  must  be  the 
source  of  the  Missouri,  they  hid,  or  cached,  their  boats, 
«and  hired  some  Indians  with  horses  to  aid  them  in  cross 
ing  the  bleak  mountains  to  the  headwaters  of  the  west- 

1  Some  of  the  men  had  left  to  engage  in  the  fur  trade,  but  several  new  peo 
ple  joined.  Among  the  latter  was  an  Indian  woman  named  Sacajawea  (mean 
ing  "  Bird  Woman").     She  was  born  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Missouri  and 
proved  very  useful  to  the  party  as  a  guide.   In  memory  of  this  great  service  to 
the  expedition,  there  is  a  beautiful  statue  erected  to  her  memory  at  Portland, 
Oregon. 

2  Near  the  present  Helena,  Montana. 

3  This  spring  is   three  thousand  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that  river,  and 
ten  thousand  feet  (nearly  two  miles)  higher  than  the  level  of  the  ocean.    One 
of  the  men  here  "  stood  with  a  foot  on  each  side"  of  the  stream  and  "  thanked 
his  God  that  he  had  at  last  lived  to  bestride  "  the  mighty  Missouri. 


236    THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

flowing  Columbia  River.  Here  they  made  new  boats  and 
descended  that  noble  stream,1  until  in  November,  1805, 
they  pitched  their  camp  on  a  beach  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
-  the  first  white  men  to  have  crossed  the  American  con 
tinent  within  the  United  States,  —  and  in  this  neighborhood 
they  passed  their  second  dreary  winter. 

The  following  spring  the  explorers  set  out  on  their  return. 
After  great  difficulties  and  perils  they  finally  reached  St. 
Louis,  which  at  that  time  (1806)  was  a  small  village.  The 
inhabitants  welcomed  their  return  with  great  joy;  for  it  had 
commonly  been  believed  that  these  intrepid  men  had  lost 
their  lives  in  the  unknown  wilderness. 

231.  Results  of  thaA^is  and  Clark  expedition.  The 
path  having  now  beejS  Bi  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  wander 
ing  fur  traders  soonSpPB^d  into  the  Far  West.2  Man}r 
American  settlers  also  opened  farms  in  what  came  to 
be  known  as  the  Oregon  Territory,  and  their  presence 
furnished  a  basis  for  our  later  claim  to  the  Northwest 
Coast. 

Elsewhere  throughout  the  great  Louisiana  Purchase 
there  were  several  daring  explorations,  most  of  them  by 
army  officers  or  Federal  officials.  The  most  important  of 
these  was  the  one  led  by  Captain  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  in  1806- 
07.  Sometimes  using  boats,  and  sometimes  horses,  he  and 
his  men  advanced  across  Kansas  and  Colorado,  a  vast 
country  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  unknown  to  Amer 
icans.  They  obtained  valuable  information  about  the  geo 
graphy,  tribes,  animals,  and  plants  of  that  region ;  were 
frequently  stopped  by  hostile  Indians;  suffered  much  from 
thirst  on  the  arid  plains,  and  discovered  Pike's  Peak  and 

1  Discovered  in  1792  by  Captain  Robert  Gray,  commanding  a  Boston  trading 
vessel  called  Columbia,  from  which  he  named  the  river.    A  few  years  before 
this,  Gray  had  gone  around  the  world  in  the  Columbia,  the  first  vessel  to  carry 
the  American  flag  on  such  a  trip. 

2  John  Jacob  Astor,  head  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  established  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  in  1811,  a  trading-post  named  Astoria,  from 
which  he  hoped  to  control  all  commerce  with  the  large  tribes  of  Indians  living 
along  the  Northwest  Coast.   But  in  the  War  of  1812  Astoria  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  British.    The  interesting  story  of  this  enterprise  has  been  told  by  Wash 
ington  Irving  in  his  famous  book,  Astoria. 


INVENTION  OF  THE  STEAMBOAT 


237 


other  mountains.  They  also  went  into  New  Mexico,  which 
was  a  region  not  included  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  but 
the  Spanish  objected  to  having  Americans  spy  into  their 
lands,  and  for  a  long  time  kept  Pike's  party  prisoners. 

232.  Invention  of  the  steamboat.  One  day  in  August, 
1807,  there  appeared  on  the  Hudson  River  a  crudely  built 
craft,  propelled  by  paddle-wheels  which  were  made  to  re 
volve  by  a  lot  of  ugly 
and  noisy  machinery. 
This  was  the  Clermont, 
built  by  Robert  Ful 
ton,  of  New  York.  The 
river-banks  were  lined 
with  excited  spectators, 
who  had  heard  that  the 
experiment  was  to  be 
made.  At  first  they 
scorned  the  idea  that  a 
crazy-looking  machine 
like  this  would  work; 
but  in  their  presence 
the  great  inventor  made 
his  first  successful  trip 

from  New  York  to  Albany,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
This  proved  to  a  doubting  and  startled  world  that  water 
craft  could  really  be  propelled  by  steam.1 

Within  four  or  five  years  steamboats  came  to  be  familiar 
sights  on  our  principal  rivers  and  lakes,  and  along  the  coast. 
In  1811  a  steamer  was  first  seen  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Rivers,  carrying  settlers  into  the  fast-growing  West.  It 
greatly  astonished  the  frontiersmen  by  being  able  to  ascend 
those  streams  against  strong  currents.  Other  steam  craft 

1  Early  American  steamboat  inventors  were:  James  Rumsey,  of  Maryland, 
1784;  John  Fitch,  of  Connecticut,  1786;  and  John  Stevens,  of  New  Jersey,  about 
1804.  But  Fulton,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1765  of  Irish  descent,  was  the  first 
to  bring  forth  a  real  success.  The  Clermont  was  for  a  time  jeered  at  as  "Ful 
ton's  Folly."  When  it  actually  worked,  however,  at  a  speed  of  five  miles  an 
hour,  the  inventor  quickly  became  celebrated.  The  first  commercially  success 
ful  English  steamboat  did  not  appear  until  1812. 


FULTON'S  STEAMBOAT,  THE  CLERMONT 

This  vessel  made  the  trip  between  New  York  and  Albany  in 
thirty-two  hours.  Steamers  of  the  present  day  require  less, 
than  ten  hours,  including  stops  at  points  along  the  way 


238    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

soon  followed  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in  1819  the  Sa 
vannah  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  England.  She  was  the  fore 
runner  of  the  countless  steam  craft  that  to-day  act  as  ferries 
across  every  ocean  on  the  globe. 

233.  Impressment  of  American  seamen;  and  injuries  to 
our  commerce.  The  home  affairs  of  our  nation  were  now  in 
a  hopeful  condition,  but  its  relations  with  Great  Britain  anc/ 
France  continued  to  be  far  from  pleasant.    Great  Britaii 
was  still  impressing  American  seamen,  under  pretense  tha<i 
they  were  British  subjects.      She  was  still  at  war  with 
France,  and  each  country  insisted  that  none  of  our  ships 
should  take  cargoes  of  food  to  the  other  country.    Some 
vessel-o\vners  were  wiU.mg,  to  run  the  risk  of  capture,  but 
under  such  conditions  .American  ocean   commerce  could 
not  prosper,  and  such  'commerce  was  then  our  principal 
business. 

234.  The  Embargo  Act.  Several  of  the  European  coun 
tries  were  by  this  time  getting  a  good  share  of  their  food 
supplies    from    the    United    States.       President   Jefferson 
thought  that  if  we  refused  to  let  Europeans  have  any  more 
supplies,  we  could  make  it  so  uncomfortable  for  them  that 
France  and  England  would  feel  it  necessary  to  make  peace 
and  cease  annoying  American  ships.    He  therefore  induced 
Congress  to  pass  the  Embargo  Act,  in  December,  1807,  by 
which  all  American  vessels  were  forbidden  to  leave  our  ports 
for  Europe.    But  to  his  great  surprise  and  disappointment 
Europe  seemed  at  that  time  quite  able  to  live  without  our 
products  —  although  in  our  day  she  probably  could  not 
do  so.   France  and  Great  Britain  would  not  alter  their  rules 
against  us,  neither  were  their  neighbors  disposed  to  inter 
fere.    The  result  was  that  our  once  busy  seaports  and  fac 
tory  towns  had  nothing  to  do,  thousands  of  people  were 
thrown  out  of  work,  hard  times  came,  and  American  vessels 
lay  idle  and  rotting  at  their  wharves.    For  a  time  it  looked 
as  though  this  country  might  be  ruined. 

So  violent  was  the  popular  clamor  against  Jefferson's  un 
wise  experiment  that  Congress  felt  compelled  to  repeal  the 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT     239 

Embargo  Act.1  There  was  substituted  for  it  a  Non-Inter 
course  Act,  which  sought  to  prevent  American  trade  with 
France  and  Great  Britain  only.  Our  commerce  was  some 
what  improved  by  this  new  law,  but  still  our  trade  with 
Europe  was  much  less  than  in  the  days  before  the  Embargo 
Act.2 

235.  Jefferson  refuses  a  third  term.  The  President  lost 
a  good  deal  of  his  popularity  because  of  the  Embargo  Act. 
Nevertheless,  the  people  respected  his  wisdom  in  other 
matters,  his  high  character,  democratic  manners,  and  pa 
triotism,  and  they  wished  him  to  serve  for  a  third  term. 
But  he  wrote:  "  General  Washington  set  the  example  of 
voluntary  retirement  after  eight  years.  I  shall  follow  it. 
And  a  few  more  precedents  will  -  oppose  the  obstacle  of 
habit  to  any  one  after  a  while  who  shall  endeavor  to  extend 
his  term."  Jefferson  was  right  in  predicting  that  this  habit 
of  holding  no  more  than  two  terms  would  in  time  become 
an  established  usage  among  our  Presidents. 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the  defeat  of  John  Adams? 

2.  Describe  the  method  of  electing  the  President  and  the  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States.  Is  this  method  better  than  electing  these  officials 
by  a  majority  or  plurality  of  all  the  voters  of  the  United  States?  Give 
reasons.   In  several  States  the  voters  in  each  party  indicate  their  choice 
of  candidates  for  the  presidency  in  a  primary  election.    Discuss  this 
plan. 

3.  Read  Rale's  The  Man  Without  a  Country.    Was  Philip  Nolan's  punish 
ment  too  severe? 

1  The  repeal  went  into  effect  on  March  4,  1809,  the  last  day  of  Jefferson's 
Administration. 

2  Commerce  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  then  suffered  from  the  cruel  and  half- 
savage  pirates  of  the  Barbary  States,  the  Moors  of  Algeria,  Morocco,  Tripoli, 
and  Tunis.  These  ruffians  captured  cargoes,  burned  the  ships,  and  made  slaves 
of  crews  and  passengers.  Each  year  the  leading  European  nations  and  our  own 
tnade  costly  presents  to  the  Moors,  to  induce  them  not  to  attack  their  vessels. 
The  Pasha  of  Tripoli,  who  was  receiving  large  sums  from  our  Government,  de 
clared  war  against  us  in  1801 ;  but  our  navy  severely  defeated  him.    It  was  not 
until  1815,  however,  that  all  the  pirates  had  been  whipped  by  our  fleets,  and  a 
stop  put  to  their  outrageous  conduct. 


240    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

4.  Where  was  the  Far  West  at  the  beginning  of  Jefferson's  term?   At  its 
close? 

5.  Point  out  on  the  map  the  route  traveled  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  re 
late  some  of  the  incidents  of  their  journey. 

6.  Livingston,  our  minister  to  France,  said  after  the  Louisiana  Purchase: 
"We  have  lived  long,  but  this  is  the  noblest  work  of  our  whole  lives." 
"  This  treaty,"  he  continued,  "will  prepare  ages  of  happiness  for  innu 
merable  generations  of  human  creatures."   Show  that  he  was  right. 

7.  Explain  the  reasons  that  led  President  Jefferson  to  favor  the  Embargo 
Act.   What  effect  would  such  an  act  have  upon  us  to-day?   Upon  Eu 
ropean  nations? 

8.  Imagine  that  you^are  an  artist  and  receive  the  following  order,  "  Paint 
a  series  of  five  pictures,  showing  the  striking  incidents  in  Jefferson's 
Administration."  (a)  Give  the  names  of  your  pictures,    (b)  Briefly  de 
scribe  one  of  the  pictures,  telling  what  characters  you  would  put  in 
it,  in  what  setting  you  would  place  the  characters,  and  what  you  would 
represent  each  one  as  doing. 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  United  States.     Indicate  the  thirteen  original 
States,  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  the  Louisiana  Territory.   Write 
on  each  the  date  that  you  associate  with  it. 

10.  Keep  track  of  the  successive  events  which  have  expanded  our  territory. 
(See  "Expansion  of  Territory"  in  the  Index.    Consult  Appendix  E 
and  the  map  between  pages  392  and  393.) 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

12.  Important  date:  1803  —  Purchase  of  Louisiana. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  living  in  Washington  during  Jefferson's  Adminis 
tration.  Write  your  journal  for  any  day  you  may  select;  describe  some 
of  the  important  things  that  you  see ;  relate  the  heated  discussion  of  some 
subject  that  you  may  have  heard;  record  the  news  received  from  the 
West,  or  from  abroad. 

2.  Use  for  the  first  sentence  of  a  composition,  "Jefferson  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  of  our  history."    In  your  composition,  tell  why 
you  think  so. 

3.  Describe  the  crowd  gathered  to  see  the  first  trip  of  the  Clermont. 

4.  Imagine  that  you  were  with  Zebulon  M.  Pike  when  he  ascended  Pike's 
Peak,  and  that  you  wrote  up  the  experiences  for  your  local  news 
paper.  Tell  what  you  wrote. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 


THE   WAR   OF    l8l2:    THE    PROTECTIVE    TARIFF    OF    l8l6 

1809-1817 

236.  Trickery  of  Great  Britain  and  France.  Jefferson's 
successor  as  President  was  James  Madison,1  who  was  in 
augurated  in  March,  1809,  just  as  the  Non- Intercourse 
Act  came  into  force.  France  and  Great  Britain  were  still 
at  war,  and  of  course  each  was  in 
dignant  at  a  law  forbidding  ship 
owners  to  carry  American  cargoes 
to  her  ports.  For  a  time  each  re 
taliated  by  seizing  any  of  our  ves 
sels  that  ventured  out  to  sea,  no 
matter  to  what  country  they  were 
bound.  Thus,  though  American 
commerce  had  somew^hat  im 
proved  after  the  repeal  of  the  Em 
bargo  Act,  it  still  was  in  a  bad 
way. 

The  new  President  wanted,  if 
possible,  to  put  an  end  to  this  un 
fortunate  condition.  The  British 
minister  had  told  him  that  if 
American  ship-owrners  would  send  fish,  grain,  cotton,  and 
other  supplies  to  England,  and  promise  not  to  send  any  to 
France,  they  would  be  protected  by  Great  Britain.  This 
seemed  an  excellent  way  of  reopening  trade,  so  Madison  con- 

1  Madison  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1751,  and  early  became  prominent  in  the 
legislature  of  that  State.  He  was  also  one  of  the  principal  members  of  both  the 
Continental  Congress  and  of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  and  shared  with 
Hamilton  the  chief  burden  and  honor  of  securing  the  adoption  of  the  Consti 
tution  by  the  States.  Madison  next  became  a  leader  in  Congress,  then  Secre 
tary  of  State,  and  served  as  President  for  eight  years.  He  died  in  1836. 


JAMES    MADISON 


242    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

sented,  and  the  delighted  American  merchants  sent  to  Eng 
lish  ports  over  a  thousand  heavily  laden  ships.  But  after  they 
had  set  sail,  word  came  that  the  British  minister  had  no 
authority  from  his  Government  to  make  such  a  promise. 
Consequently,  many  of  these  valuable  cargoes,  instead  of 
being  sold  at  a  large  profit,  as  had  been  expected,  could  not 
be  landed  in  the  harbors  of  England.  Americans,  especially 
in  New  England,  where  most  of  the  ships  were  owned,  were 
very  angry  and  discouraged  at  this  treatment,  which  they 
thought  to  be  merely  "an  English  trick." 

Soon  after  this  France  made  a  similar  arrangement  with 
the  President,  to  receive  American  foodstuffs  provided  that 
none  be  sent  to  Great  Britain.  But  when  our  ships,  with 
cargoes  worth  ten  millions  of  dollars,  arrived  in  French 
ports,  they  were  not  allowed  to  unload  there,  thus  repeat 
ing  the  "trick  "  played  by  Great  Britain. 

237.  Impressment  of  seamen  by  Great  Britain.  All  this 
occurred  while  our  coast  was  being  patrolled  by  British 
war- vessels,  which  frequently  kidnaped  sailors  from  Ameri 
can  ships  and  meddled  with  our  trade  to  foreign  countries. 
More  than  six  thousand  naturalized  Americans  had  thus 
far  virtually  been  enslaved  in  Great  Britain's  navy,  with 
poor  food,  low  wages,  and  harsh  treatment,  and  they  were 
obliged,  under  threat  of  severe  punishment,  to  assist  in 
annoying  their  fellow  countrymen.  No  doubt  some  of  these 
kidnaped  men  actually  were  deserters  from   the  British 
navy,  as  its  officers  claimed;  but  the  majority  were  really 
Americans,  and  were   taken   simply  because   the  British 
wanted  these  able-bodied  fellows  for  their  own  ships.1 

238.  Congress  declares  war  against  Great  Britain.  The 
newly  elected  Congress,   which    met  in   December,   1811, 
was   largely   composed    of   aggressive   young    Democrats. 

1  About  this  time  Tecumseh,  chief  of  the  Shawnee  Indians  of  Ohio,  aided 
by  his  brother,  "the  Shawnee  Prophet,"  formed  a  confederation  of  Western 
tribes,  to  drive  ofif  American  settlers.  It  was  said  that  the  British  aided  these 
savages  with  arms  and  ammunition.  In  the  autumn  of  1811,  during  Tecum- 
seh's  absence,  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  governor  of  Indiana  Terri 
tory,  marched  against  the  Shawnee  and  defeated  them  on  Tippecanoe  Crec~. 
This  battle  made  Harrison  a  popular  hero. 


WAR  WITH   GREAT   BRITAIN  243 

They  were  new  men  in  national  politics,  and  the  most  active 
and  able  of  them  came  from  the  West  and  the  South.1  Angry 
at  Great  Britain  for  her  conduct  toward  us,  they  were  deter 
mined  to  have  another  war  with  her,  to  obtain  what  they 
called  our  "  sailors'  rights."  The  "war  hawks,"  as  they 
were  dubbed,  thought  that  it  was  only  necessary  to  capture 
Canada,  which  lay  at  our  door  apparently  almost  unpro 
tected  by  soldiers  or  navy.  With  Canada  once  in  our 
hands,  declared  one  optimistic  orator,  we  could  "  dictate 
peace  at  Quebec  or  Halifax." 

The  following  summer,  President  Madison,  acting  under 
instructions  of  Congress,  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
war  against  Great  Britain,  charging  her  with  four  serious 
offenses  against  this  nation :  - 

(a)  Impressing  American  sailors.     This  was  the  offense 
that  chiefly  angered  the  people. 

(b)  Patrolling  our  Atlantic  Coast  with  armed  vessels, 
which  tried  to  "  bottle  up  "  our  ports  and  prevent  our  trad 
ing  with  other  nations. 

(c)  Capturing  our  merchant  vessels  on  the  high  seas. 

(d)  Encouraging  the  Indians  to  attack,  rob,  and  murder 
our  settlers  west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains. 

239.  The  British  desire  peace.  Great  Britain  did  not 
want  to  go  to  war  with  us.  She  still  had  on  her  hands  a  giant 
struggle  against  Napoleon  and  his  European  allies,  which 
was  all  the  fighting  she  felt  able  to  do.  Before  Madison's 
declaration  had  reached  London,  for  then  there  was  no  At 
lantic  cable,  and  the  fastest  ships  took  several  weeks  to 
cross  the  ocean,  she  had  ordered  her  navy  to  cease  annoy 
ing  American  shipping.  But  Congress  was  under  the  firm 
control  of  the  "  war  hawks,"  and  insisted  on  fighting. 

In  the  seaports  of  New  England,  however,  the  war  spirit 

1  Two  of  the  new  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  were  Henry 
Clay,  of  Kentucky  (who  had  been  a  senator),  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South 
Carolina.  They  were  orators  and  statesmen  of  great  power,  who  long  continued 
to  be  leaders  in  the  House.  Clay  was  Speaker  of  that  body,  and  at  the  head  of 
the  party  that  favored  war.  By  this  time  the  statesmen  who  had  carried  on  the 
Revolution  were  most  of  them  grown  old,  and  were  not  now  in  control  of  the 
Government. 


244    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

of  the  West  and  the  South  found  few  friends.  The  people 
of  that  section  feared  that  the  English  navy  might  utterly 
destroy  our  ocean  commerce,  and  this  would  ruin  thousands 
of  New  Englanders.1 

240.  The  Americans  unprepared.  Congress  had  entered 
upon  this  war  with  entire  confidence  in  our  ability  soon  to 
whip  the  enemy.   But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  were  not  at  all 
prepared  for  such  a  task.    It  was  necessary  to  raise  heavy 
special  taxes  and  borrow  money  to  equip,  feed,  and  pay  our 
forces;  for  at  that  time  the  Federal  revenue  was  barely 
enough  to  support  the  Government  in  time  of  peace.    Our 
regular  army  contained   less  than  seven  thousand  men, 
who  knew  almost  nothing  about  fighting.    Most  of  the  Re 
volutionary  veterans  were  now  too  old  for  service,  so  that 
the  large  and  well-trained  British  army  must  be  fought 
almost  entirely  by  our  volunteers  and  militia.   At  the  begin 
ning  of  the  struggle  we  had,  besides  six  small  ships,  but 
ten  naval  vessels  that  were  capable  of  going  out  to  sea, 
and  seven  of  these  were  poorly  armed.  The  British,  how 
ever,  had  nearly  a  thousand   men-of-war,  many  of  them 
much  larger  than  the  best  of  ours.  This  last  fact  seemed 
most  discouraging;  but,  when  a  number  of  splendid  new  frig 
ates  were  added  to  our  navy,  those  which  met  the  British 
proved  quite  the  equal  of  the  enemy  in  seamanship  and 
fighting  qualities.  This  is  saying  a  great  deal,  for  the  British 
navy  had  for  over  two  centuries,  since  it  defeated  the  Span 
ish  Armada  in  1588,  been  the  most  effective  in  the  world. 

241.  The  Americans  fail  to  capture  Canada.  Congress 
having  thought  it  quite  easy  for  us  to  capture  Canada,  and 
then  to  annex  it,  our  army  officers  at  once  prepared  to  send 
against    that  colony  three  land  expeditions.    All  of  these 
were  failures:  - 

1  This  feeling  grew  stronger  and  stronger  as  the  war  went  on.  In  December, 
1814,  delegates  from  the  New  England  States  held  a  convention  at  Hartford, 
Connecticut.  The  meeting  virtually  threatened  that  those  States  would  se 
cede  from  the  Union  unless  they  were  permitted  to  retain  for  their  own  protec 
tion  during  the  war,  the  Federal  customs  duties  collected  within  their  borders. 
Fortunately  the  end  of  the  war  came  before  their  address  could  be  presented 
to  Congress. 


CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  CANADA 


245 


(a)  General  William  Hull  went  from  Ohio  with  2000  men, 
to  keep  Detroit  from  falling  into  British  hands.  He  chopped 
out  a  road  through  two  hundred  miles  of  dense  forest;  but 
on  arriving  at  Detroit  he  found  himself  outnumbered  by 
Canadians  and  Indians,  and  surrendered  to  them.1    This 
gave  the  enemy  control  of  a  large  region  bordering  upon  the 
upper  Great  Lakes. 

(b)  General  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  entered  Canada  by 
way  of  the  Niagara  River.   He  intended  to  seize  the  British 


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THE  FIELD   OF  THE  WAR  OF  1812 

fort  at  York,  now  Toronto,  and  join  Hull,  who  had  ex 
pected  to  march  eastward  from  Detroit ;  it  had  been  planned 
that  these  two  generals  should  then  march  against  Mon 
treal.  But  Hull  had  met  defeat,  and  now  Van  Rensselaer 
was  also  beaten  with  heavy  losses  at  Queenstown,  a  few 
miles  north  of  Niagara  Falls. 

(c)  General  Henry  Dearborn  went  northward  by  way  of 
the  old  Hudson-Champlain  route.    His  purpose  was  to  join 

1  This  was  on  August  16,  1812.  The  day  before,  the  Indians  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  Fort  Dearborn,  on  the  site  of  Chicago,  had  massacred  its  garrison. 
In  July  Mackinac  had  been  taken  by  the  British. 


246    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

Hull  and  Van  Rensselaer  in  the  proposed  attack  on  Mon 

treal.    After  that  the  three  generals  were  to  storm  Quebec. 

But  as  the  other  two  had  been  defeated,  Dearborn  alone 

could  do  nothing. 

242.  Old  Ironsides.  Thus  the  year  was  one  of  contin 

uous  disaster  on  land.    But  meanwhile,  American  seamen 

won  a  brilliant 
victory;  indeed, 
the  entire  three 
years'  contest 
was  chiefly  a  na 
val  war.  The 
American  frigate 
Constitution, 
commanded  by 
Captain  Isaac 
Hull,  a  nephew 
of  the  general, 
was  cruising  off 
Nova  Scotia, 

AugUSt 

u.  „_, 
HC  met 

ontlSri     trig- 
a£e  Guerriere    At 

the  end  of  a  half- 

hour's  sharp  fight,  the  Guerriere  was  badly  shattered  and 
beginning  to  sink,  so  her  captain  surrendered.  The  Consti 
tution,  however,  was  so  skillfully  managed  that  she  was 
not  much  hurt.  After  her  victory,  which  aroused  great  en 
thusiasm  throughout  the  country,  she  was  fondly  called 
"  Old  Ironsides."  1 

Several  American  naval  victories  quickly  followed  this 
affair.  During  October,  five  hundred  miles  east  of  Chesa 
peake  Bay,  the  British  brig  Frolic  was  beaten  by  the  Ameri- 

1  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  wrote  a  patriotic  poem  on  this  famous  vessel, 
at  a  time  when,  too  old  to  be  longer  serviceable,  it  was  proposed  to  destroy  her. 
She  was,  however,  preserved  and  restored  to  her  original  appearance,  and  can 
still  be  seen  at  the  navy  yard  in  Charlestown,  Massachusetts. 


Courted  A*.  Entfand  Mutual  Ltfe  Insurance  Company 

THE  FIGHT  BETWEEN  THE  CONSTITUTION  AND 
THE  GUERRIERE 

The  Constitution  was  of  2200  tons  displacement,  and  204  feet  in  length. 
Cost,  f  302.719.    Crew,  400  officers  and  men.    Compare  with  the  New 


PERRY'S  VICTORY  247 

can  sloop  Wasp,  and  the  frigate  United  States  captured  the 
frigate  Macedonian,  off  the  North  African  Coast.  In  De 
cember  the  Constitution  destroyed  the  frigate  Java,  north 
east  of  Rio  Janeiro.  In  February,  1813,  the  Hornet  sank  the 
British-Peacock,  near  the  northeast  coast  of  South  America. 
These  exploits  greatly  encouraged  our  small  navy,  and  dis 
mayed  the  British,  who  were  not  used  to  defeat. 

243.  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship."  The  British  navy  had 
been  diligent  in  blockading  1  our  harbors  and  "  bottling 
up  "  several  of  our  new  ships.    However,  a  few  were  able 
to  elude  the  enemy  on  foggy  days  or  on  dark  nights,  and 
slip  out  to  sea.    Among  these  was  the  frigate  Chesapeake, 
under  Captain    James    Lawrence.     On    the    first    day  of 
June,  1813,  this  vessel  fought  valiantly  with  the  British 
warship  Shannon.    Lawrence  fell  mortally  wounded  while 
shouting  to  his  men,  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship!  "  The  enemy 
at  last  compelled  the  crew  of  the  Chesapeake  to  surrender, 
but  Lawrence's  dying  words  have  ever  since  been  the  war- 
cry  of  the  American  navy. 

244.  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.  Our  land  forces  had, 
up  to  this  time,  failed  either  to  capture  Canada  or  to  keep 
the  region  of  the  upper  Great  Lakes  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.    And  now  there  seemed  to  be  great 
danger  that  the  British  might  get  possession  of  all  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  possibly  send  troops  across  Lake  Erie  to  occupy 
our  soil.  But  the  plucky  navy  came  to  the  rescue,  and  Amer 
ican  control  in  our  Northwest  was  regained  through  the 
enterprise  and  courage  of  Captain  Oliver  H.  Perry.   That 
gallant  commander  collected  for  this  purpose  a  fleet  of  nine 
armed  vessels,  five  of  which  were  built  from  green  timber 
which  his  men  cut  on  the  banks  of  the  lake.   On  September 
10,  1813,  he  was  attacked  off  Put-in-Bay  by  a  British  fleet 
of  only  six  ships,  but  carrying  larger  crews  and  many  more 
guns  than  his  own.    A  fierce  battle  followed,  in  which  the 

1  When  a  harbor  or  a  coast  is  blockaded  by  an  enemy,  his  ships  are  so  placed 
that  no  other  vessels  may  either  leave  it,  or  approach  it  from  outside,  without 
danger  of  being  attacked. 


248    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

Commodore's  flagship,  the  Lawrence,1  was  sunk.  Escaping 
from  the  wreck,  Perry  and  his  twelve-year-old  brother  were 
rowed  by  sailors,  through  the  thick  of  the  fight,  to  another 
ship.  It  was  a  perilous  experience;  the  rowboat  was  fre 
quently  hit,  and  the  lad's  cap  was  torn  by  bullets.  Victory 

soon  came,  how 
ever,  with  the 
entire  destruc 
tion  of  the  ene 
my's  fleet.  In  the 
hour  of  his  great 
triumph  the 
American  com 
mander  sent  to 
General  Harri 
son,  who  was  de 
fending  Ohio,  his 
famous  message, 
hurriedly  writ- 
ten  on  the  blank 
page  of  a  letter  that  he  had  in  his  pocket,  "  We  have  met 
the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours!  "  The  battle  was  a  turning- 
point  in  the  war.  Aided  by  Perry's  fleet  the  American  army 
was  not  long  in  forcing  the  British  to  retreat  from  Detroit, 
and  after  this  our  control  of  the  entire  Northwest  was  un 
challenged.2 

245.  The  British  are  reinforced.  The  enemy  did  not  re 
main  idle.  Napoleon  having  met  temporary  defeat  in  1814, 
Great  Britain  did  not  need  to  keep  so  many  of  her  soldiers 
in  Europe  as  before.  Large  numbers  of  them  were  accord- 

1  Named  after  Captain  Lawrence,  and  bearing  a  flag  with  that  commander's 
stirring  motto,  "Don't  give  up  the  ship!" 

2  The  fleet  ferried  Harrison  northward  across  Lake  Erie,  and  in  October  he 
defeated  a  large  number  of  British  and  Indians  in  a  battle  on  Thames  River, 
in  Ontario.    Tecumseh  was  killed  in  this  fight,  and  thereafter  the  Northwest 
savages  ceased  aiding  the  enemy.    On  March  29,  1814,  General  Andrew  Jack 
son,  at  the  head  of  a  large  body  of  Tennessee  militia,  defeated  the  Creek  Indians 
in  the  battle  of  Horseshoe  Bend,  Alabama.   This  was  to  punish  them  for  molest 
ing  American  settlers  in  the  South. 


Painting  by  Powtll  in  the  Capitol 

COMMODORE  PERRY  AT  THE  BATTLE  OF  LAKE 

ERIE 
Transferring  the  colors  from  the  Lawrence  to  the  Niagara 


THE   BATTLE  OF  LAKE   CHAMPLAIN  249 

ingly  sent  to  Canada,  and  they  prepared  to  invade  the 
United  States  at  three  points:  Lake  Champlain  on  the 
north,  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  south,  and,  in  order  to 
scatter  the  American  troops,  at  various  harbors  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast.  Several  interesting  events  now  occurred, 
which  we  will  take  up  in  turn. 

246.  The  British  are  repulsed  on  Lake  Champlain.  Early 
in   September   12,000   British  soldiers  and   sailors   from 


From  a  contemporary  engraving 

THE  AMERICAN   NAVAL  VICTORY  ON   LAKE  CHAMPLAIN 

Notice  the  flotillas  of  open  barges,  which  forme'd  part  of  each  fleet 

Canada  appeared  in  vessels  on  Lake  Champlain.  Their 
intent  was  to  destroy  our  settlements  in  the  northern  part 
of  New  York  State.  But  Lieutenant  Macdonough,  with  a 
smaller  American  fleet,  met  the  invaders  off  Plattsburg  and 
won  a  brilliant  victory.  A  land  attack  .on  Plattsburg  by  a 
large  British  force  was  also  gallantly  repulsed. 

247.  The  British  attack  Washington  and  Baltimore.  The 
British  ocean  fleet,  which  carried  a  large  body  of  soldiers, 
first  assaulted  and  burned  several  New  England  coast 
towns  that  could  easily  be  reached  by  landing-parties.  The 
men-of-war  then  suddenly  appeared  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 


250    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

not  far  from  the  city  of  Washington,  which  at  that  time 
contained  only  some  8000  inhabitants.  The  American 
troops  were  defeated  in  a  battle  at  Bladensburg,  Mary 
land,  four  miles  from  Washington,  and  this  left  the  capital 
exposed  to  the  enemy.  The  Federal  officials  and  many  of 
the  residents  fled  in  wild  panic.  The  President  was  with  the 
army,  when  a  messenger  reached  the  White  House  to  urge 
Mrs.  Madison  to  hurry  to  a  place  of  safety.  She  ordered 
the  silvenvare  and  other  valuable  household  articles  to  be 
loaded  on  a  wagon,  and  then  escaped  in  her  carriage  to  a 
country  tavern,  sixteen  miles  away,  where  her  husband 
joined  her.1 

The  year  before  this  the  American  general,  Dearborn, 
had  captured  York,  and  some  of  his  soldiers,  entirely  with 
out  orders,  had  wantonly  burned  the  fine  Parliament 
House  at  that  place.  In  revenge  for  this  the  British  plun 
dered  and  burned  the  Capitol,  the  White  House,  and  some 
other  public  buildings,  with  all  their  priceless  records  and 
other  valuable  contents.  It  was  a  disgraceful  act  of  van 
dalism,  of  which  no  civilized  army  would  in  our  day  be 
guilty. 

About  three  weeks  later,  Fort  McHenry,  which  guarded 
Baltimore,  was  cannonaded  by  the  same  British  ships. 
Fortunately  the  Americans  were  here  able  to  stand  their 
ground,  and  the  enemy  soon  withdrew  from  Chesapeake 
Bay.2 

248.  The  Battle  of  New  Orleans.  The  British  fleet  now 

1  Mrs.  Madison,  known  to  her  friends  as  "Dolly,"  also  saved  a  famous  pic 
ture  of  George  Washington,  by  the  artist  Gilbert  Stuart,  together  with  the 
original  copy  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

2  On  the  day  before  the  battle  Francis  Scott  Key,  a  Baltimore  gentleman, 
visited  the  British  fleet  in  the  harbor,  to  arrange  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners. 
He  was  not  permitted  to  leave  for  home  during  the  bombardment,  which  lasted 
throughout  the  whole  night.    From  the  deck  of  one  of  the  vessels  he  watched 
anxiously,  hour  after  hour,  fearing  that  the  flag  of  Fort  McHenry  might  be 
hauled  down  in  token  of  surrender.  His  great  joy  at  seeing  the  "Stars  and 
Stripes"  still  floating  triumphantly  at  the  dawn  of  the  new  day,  was  expressed 
in  a  thrilling  song,  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  which  he  quickly  wrote  on 
the  back  of  a  letter.  A  few  hours  later  it  was  sung  in  public  by  an  actor  in  the 
city.  Within  a  few  weeks  Americans  everywhere  were  familiar  with  the  verses, 
and  Key  had  become  a  national  celebrity. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS      251 

continued  its  voyage  to  New  Orleans.  Its  officers  hoped 
easily  to  capture  that  city,  and  with  it  the  control  of  the 
Mississippi  River  and  the  interior  of  the  continent.  General 
Andrew  Jackson,  a  popular  Indian  fighter  from  Tennessee, 
was  in  command  of  the  defenses.  His  little  army  of  nearly 
5000  leather-clad  volunteers  had  mostly  been  collected  from 
the  backwoods  of  the  South  and  the  West.  Few  of  them 
had  had  military  training,  but  nearly  all  were  Expert  hunt- 


From  an  old  engraving 

THE  BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS 

ers,  who  with  their  long-barreled,  flintlock  rifles  could  hit 
the  smallest  mark. 

The  British  vessels  entered  Lake  Borgne,  a  few  miles 
east  of  the  city,  and  by  means  of  small  boats  landed  5500 
skilled  veterans  under  General  Pakenham.  Several  small 
battles  were  fought  in  the  cypress  swamp  lying  between 
New  Orleans  and  the  river,  but  the  final  British  advance 
against  the  American  defenders  was  not  made  until  January 
8,  1815.  Jackson  and  his  sharpshooters  quietly  arranged 
themselves  behind  their  hastily  built  fortifications  of  earth 
and  logs.  They  knew  no  fear;  every  man  of  them  was  as 
cool  as  if  at  a  target  match  in  his  own  frontier  town,  a;id 


252    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

fired  only  when  he  had  selected  a  redcoat  as  a  victim. 
Under  this  unerring  aim  the  British  general  fell  dead,  and 
over  two  thousand  of  his  brave  men  were  either  killed  or 
wounded,  while  the  American  loss  was  only  twenty-one.1 
The  British  survivors  tarried  in  the  vicinity  for  nearly  three 
weeks,  and  then  returned  to  their  ships  and  sailed  away, 
greatly  chagrined  at  this  unexpected  and  terrible  defeat. 
The  stirring  news  of  victory  quickly  spread  from  one  end 
of  our  country  to  the  other,  and  soon  the  name  and  fame 
of  Andrew  Jackson  were  familiar  to  every  American  man, 
woman,  and  child. 

249.  Peace  concluded.  The  British  Government  had 
come  to  realize,  by  the  autumn  of  1814,  that  although  our 
young  nation  was  weak  and  unprepared  for  war,  it  could 
not  easily  be  beaten.  The  American  army  of  regulars  and 
militiamen  had  been  effective  in  the  defense  of  Plattsburg 
and  Baltimore,  and  under  Jackson  at  New  Orleans.  But 
from  the  fact  that  it  had  largely  been  a  naval  war,  the 
greatest  honors  were  earned  by  our  sailors,  who  in  the 
fifteen  notable  battles  at  sea  had  won  twelve.  Great  Brit 
ain's  powerful  vessels  blockaded  American  ports,  •"  bottled 
up  "  many  of  our  small  wrarships,  and  prevented  our  regular 
trade  with  foreign  countries.  By  1814  she  had,  through  her 
blockade,  driven  the  most  of  our  vessels  from  the  ocean; 
during  1812  and  1813,  however,  over  five  hundred  ''Yan 
kee"  privateers,  well  armed  and  manned,  had  scoured  the 
Atlantic,  preyed  on  British  craft  wherever  found,  and  made 
large  profits  in  selling  captured  vessels  and  cargoes.  Great 
Britain's  commerce  had,  therefore,  very  greatly  suffered, 
and  she  now  sought  peace. 

On  Christmas  Eve,  1814,  there  was  signed  at  Ghent,  in 
Belgium,  a  treaty  which  provided  that  the  war  cease,  that 
each  side  surrender  to  the  other  all  conquered  territory, 
and  that  all  disputes  about  boundaries  be  settled.  Nothing 

1  Our  loss  in  this  principal  battle  was  but  eight  killed  and  thirteen  wounded. 
But  at  the  same  time  there  was  another  battle  in  progress  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  in  which  the  American  loss  was  fifty;  making  the  total 
loss  seventy-one. 


WHAT  THE  WAR  ACCOMPLISHED  253 

was  said  in  this  treaty,  however,  about  the  real  causes  of 
the  war.1 

News  then  traveled  very  slowly  between  Europe  and 
America.  Neither  Jackson  nor  Pakenham  knew  of  the  peace 
when  they  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  New  Orleans,  two 
weeks  after  the  treaty  was  signed. 2  Ever  since  that  memor 
able  struggle  in  Louisiana,  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  have  been  at  peace.  Of  late  years  they 
have  become  the  firmest  of  friends,  which  certainly  should 
always  be  the  case  between  these  two  great  divisions  of 
English-speaking  folk.  I 

250.  What  the  war  accomplished.    War  is  a  crude,  costly, 
and  cruel  method  of  settling  disputes  between  nations,  and 
whenever  possible  it  should  be  avoided.   Still,  this  unfortu 
nate  conflict  did  result  in  several  benefits  to  the  Union:  — 

(a)  The  Republic  had  displayed  its  ability,  especially  on 
the  sea,  to  defend  itself  and  to  enforce  its  rights.  Until  a 
nation  can  do  this,  it  cannot  be  sure  of  peace. 

(b)  The  stoppage  of  importation  from  Europe  had  led  to 
the  establishment  among  us  of  a  large  number  of  "native 
industries,"  especially  in  New  England. 

(c)  When  the  war  began  most  Americans  still  thought 
of  the  Union  as  a  mere  confederation  of  independent  States. 
But  the  brilliant  victories  of  Federal  soldiers  and  sailors, 
together  with  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  West,  greatly  in 
creased  our  national  pride.    Men  now  saw  that  the  Union 
had  ceased  to  be  an  experiment.  It  had  grown  to  be  a  strong 
and  enduring  nation. 

251.  The  protective  tariff  of  1816.  One  of  the  results  of 
the  war  was  to  reopen  our  commerce  with  Europe,  which 
had  been  stopped  by  the  Non- Intercourse  Act.    American 
manufacturers  saw  with  dismay  that  goods  made  in  foreign 

1  But  after  the  peace,  the  British  ceased  to  search  our  vessels  and  impress 
our  seamen,  so  that  this  one  question  was  no  longer  important. 

2  News  of  this  battle  reached  Washington  on  February  4,  about  a  week 
before  the  Federal  officials  had  tidings  of  the  proceedings  at  Ghent.  The  British 
fleet  also  long  remained  uninformed  of  the  close  of  the  war;  for  on  February 
1 1,  a  month  after  the  victory  at  New  Orleans,  it  captured  an  American  post  on 
Mobile  Bay. 


254    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

countries,  where  labor  was  much  cheaper  than  in  the  United 
States,  were  now  coming  to  our  ports  in  vast  quantities  and 
being  offered  at  lower  prices  than  they  could  afford  to  sell 
American  products.  Congress  yielded  to  their  wishes,  and 
passed  the  tariff  of  1816,  which  imposed  much  higher  duties 
than  before.  It  was  the  first  really  protective  tariff  that  the 
United  States  had  enacted. 

252.  The  National  Road.  The  introduction  of  the  steam 
boat,  in  Jefferson's  Administration,  had  done  much  to  ce 
ment  the  bond  between  the  States.  This  great  invention 
made  it  easier  for  people  of  different  sections  to  travel 
about  and  get  acquainted,  and  therefore  friendly,  with  each 
other.  Another  great  aid  to  travel  was  the  broad  and  well- 
made  National,  or  Cumberland,  Road,  which  was  built  by 
Congress  to  facilitate  commerce  by  land.  It  was  com 
menced  at  Cumberland,  Maryland,  in  1811,  and  led  west 
ward,  partly  by  way  of  General  Braddock's  old  military 
road,  over  the  Allegheny  Mountains  to  the  Ohio  River, 
which  it  reached  at  Wheeling,  West  Virginia. 

Gaudily  painted  stage-coaches,  drawn  by  fast  horses 
which  were  often  changed,  rolled  frequently  along  the 
smooth  surface  of  this  highway.  Their  passengers  put  up 
for  the  night  at  log  taverns,  where  food  was  coarse  and 
often  scarce,  and  sleeping-room  likely  to  be  at  a  premium. 
The  majority  of  the  West-going  settlers,  however,  who 
brought  with  them  their  families,  household  goods,  ard 
live  stock,  traveled  in  great  canvas-covered  wagons,  labori 
ously  hauled  by  long  teams  of  mules.  On  arriving  at  the 
Ohio  River,  steamboats  took  the  "  movers  "  to  their  new 
homes  along  the  banks  of  that  and  other  Western  streams. 

Gradually  Congress  extended  the  National  Road  still 
farther  westward.  Passing  through  Columbus,  Indianapolis, 
and  many  other  frontier  settlements  that  now  are  flour 
ishing  cities,  it  finally  reached  Illinois  in  1838.  There  it 
stopped,  after  having  cost  the  nation  $6,800,000,  for  by 
that  time  railroads  had  been  introduced,  and  most  travelers 
preferred  this  quicker  and  easier  way  of  reaching  the  West. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT     255 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  forces  are  at  work  to-day  which  might  have  prevented  the  War 
'  of  1812? 

2.  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship"  has  become  a  motto  in  America.  What  his 
toric  event  does  it  recall? 

3.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  "vandalism"?  Why  do  the  author? 
say  that  no  civilized  army  to-day  would  be  guilty  of  such  conduct? 

4.  Locate  the  scenes  of  the  campaign  of  1814-15. 

5.  Learn  the  words  and  music  of  The  Star-Spangled  Banner.    During 
the  playing  of  this  music,  soldiers  and  sailors  are  required  to  stand 
at  "attention."  All  audiences  should  show  the  same  respect  for  the 
flag.  When  the  national  colors   are  passing  on  parade,  spectators 
should,  if  walking,  halt;  or  if  sitting,  rise,  the  men  and  boys  remov 
ing  their  hats. 

6.  Give  reasons  why  England  and  America  especially  should  be  friends, 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  War  of  1812,  under  these  headings:  - 


Important  Events 

Leaders 

Results 

8.  Bring  to  the  class  pictures  contrasting  land  transportation  of  the  early 
nineteenth  century  with  that  of  the  early  twentieth  century. 

9.  Trace  on  a  map  the  National  Road.  Why  was  it  important  in  the  early 
nineteenth  century?  Why  did  the  Government  discontinue  its  building? 

10.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  an  American  sailor  impressed  into  service  on  a 
British  man-of-war.    You  smuggle  home  a  letter  telling  of  your  im 
pressment,  the  cruelty  of  your  treatment,  your  plans  for  escape. 

2.  Imagine  that  when  young  you  served  with  Lawrence  on  the  Chesa 
peake  and  you  are  telling  your  grandchildren  of  his  death. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  were  Perry's  brother.  Relate  your  experience  in  the 
Battle  of  Lake  Erie. 

4.  Imagine  that  you  were  ».n  American  official  in  the  White  House  when 
the  news  oi  the  British  attack  is  received.   Picture  Dolly  Madison's 
presence  of  mind  in  the  midst  o{  the  confusion. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

THE  ERA  OF  GOOD  FEELINGS:  THE  MISSOURI    COMPROMISE: 
THE    MONROE    DOCTRINE 

1817-1825 

253.  The  Era  of  Good  Feelings.  In  March,  1817,  James 
Monroe  1  became  President.  As  sooi.  as  summer  arrived, 
he  made  a  long  tour  through  the  Northern  States,  urging 
his  fellow  citizens  to  cease  their  old-time  sectional  jealousies 

and  party  quarrels,  and  to  work 
together  for  the  welfare  of  the 
country.  Only  in  this  way,  said 
the  President,  could  the  nation 
grow  great  and  strong.  Every 
where  the  people  greeted  with 
enthusiasm  the  popular  war  vet 
eran,  who  continued  to  wear  the 
Revolutionary  uniform,  and  they 
came  in  great  throngs  to  clasp 
his  hands.  The  political  party 
to  which  he  belonged,  the  Demo 
cratic,  had  brought  on  the  War 
of  1812,  and  this  had  greatly 

angered  the  New  Englanders,  for  it  had  seriously  in 
jured  their  shipping  interests.  Nevertheless,  they  warmly 
welcomed  him  as  a  messenger  of  peace.  One  Boston  news 
paper  said,  "  Party  feeling  and  animosities  have  been  laid 
aside,  and  one  great  national  feeling  has  animated  every 

1  Monroe  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1 758.  When  the  Revolu  tion  broke  out,  he  was 
a  student  in  William  and  Mary  College,  but  left  school  to  become  a  lieutenant 
in  a  Virginia  regiment.  At  Trenton  he  led  the  advance  guard.  He  was  in  the  bat 
tles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  and  became  a  lieutenant- 
colonel.  After  serving  in  the  Virginia  Assembly,  the  Confederation  Congress, 
and  the  Federal  Senate,  he  was  minister  to  France  and  Great  Britain,  gov 
ernor  of  his  State,  and  a  member  of  President  Madison's  Cabinet.  He  died  in 
New  York  City  in  1831. 


THE   FLORIDA   PURCHASE  257 

class  of  our  citizens."  Another  Boston  paper  called  it  the 
"  Era  of  Good  Feelings,"  and  by  that  happy  name  Mon 
roe's  Administration  has  ever  since  been  known. 

254.  The  Florida  Purchase.  However,  the  President  was 
not  only  a  peacemaker;  he  could  act  with  vigor  when  there 
was  need  for  it.    The  Spanish  Province  of  Florida 1  was  the 
home  of  smugglers,  pirates,  and  other  lawless  classes,  includ 
ing  unruly  Seminole  Indians  and  runaway  negro  slaves. 
These  people,  who  lived  in  the  midst  of  great  swamps  and 
dense  forests,  frequently  made  raids  against  American  set 
tlements  lying  to  the  north  of  them,  to  plunder  and  murder. 
Monroe  determined  to  put  a  stop  to  this,  and  in   1818  he 
sent  General  Jackson  to  punish  any  raiders  whom  he  found 
within  our  territory.    That  experienced    Indian  fighter  did 
not  stop  at  the  Florida  boundary,  but  marching  southward 
chased  the  offenders  out  of  their  hiding  places  and  pun 
ished  .them  without  mercy. 

Spain  was,  of  course,  much  annoyed  at  having  her  soil 
invaded  by  our  troops,  but  deemed  it  unwise  to  quarrel 
with  us  about  it;  so,  to  avoid  further  trouble,  she  sold  the 
province  to  the  United  States,  in  1819,  for  $5,000,000.  In 
this  way  there  were  added  to  our  possessions,  at  a  cost  of 
about  eleven  cents  an  acre,  seventy-one  thousand  square 
miles,  a  region  about  fourteen  times  the  size  of  Connecti 
cut.2  The  Florida  Purchase  was  our  second  step  in  national 
expansion;  our  first  was,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  Louisi 
ana  Purchase. 

255.  Westward  migration.  Immediately  after  the  Treaty 
of  Ghent  migration  into  the  West  increased  more  rapidly  than 
ever  before.  A  traveler  on  the  National  Road  wrote  in  1817: 
"  Old  America  seems  to  be  breaking  up  and  moving  west 
ward;  we  are  seldom  out  of  sight,  as  we  travel  on  this  grand 
track  towards  the  Ohio,  of  family  groups  behind  and  before 

1  There  were  two  Spanish  provinces,  East  Florida  and  West  Florida.    We 
commonly  refer  to  them  collectively,  however,  as  Florida. 

2  Two  other  agreements  were  made  with  Spain,  at  this  time:  First,  she  aban 
doned  all  of  her  claims  to  the  Oregon  region,  which  we  were  coveting;  second, 
we  abandoned  our  claim  to  what  afterwards  was  called  Texas,  a  country  which 
before  this  we  had  thought  was  a  part  of  our  Louisiana  Purchase. 


258     THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 


us."  But  the  people  of  old  Europe,  great  numbers  of  whom 
had  been  made  very  poor  by  Napoleon's  wars,  which  had 
ruined  the  farms  and  destroyed  the  towns  and  villages 
through  large  sections  of  country,  were  also  moving  west 
ward  to  the  new  land  across  the  Atlantic.  Thousands  of 
them  arrived  each  year,  and  formed  a  part  of  this  grow 
ing  procession  toward  the  fertile  region  of  the  trans-Alle 
gheny.1 

Most  of  the  settlers  opened  farms  or  built  towns  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River  and  north  of  the  Tennessee.     But 

there  was  also  at  this 
time,  and  for  many 
years  after,  a  steady 
westward  movement 
of  planters  from  the 
Carolinas  and  Geor 
gia,  who  sought  new 
and  larger  rice  and 
cotton  fields  in  Ala 
bama,  Mississippi, 
and  Louisiana.  Some 
of  them,  indeed,  did 
not  stop  until  they  had  crossed  the  Mississippi  River  into 
the  Louisiana  Purchase.  They  went  with  their  families  in 
heavy  wagons,  which  rolled  and  pitched  on  the  rough  roads; 
while  trudging  in  their  rear  were  gangs  of  slaves,  having  in 
charge  droves  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Thus  was  the 
system  of  slavery  being  rapidly  extended  into  what  was 
then  called  the  Southwest. 

256.  Slave  States  against  free  States.    Because  of  this 
great  migration  to  the  interior  of  the  continent,3  new  States 

1  It  is  believed  that  between  22,000  and  30,000  immigrants  came  from  Europe 
to  America  in  1817,  chiefly  to  the  ports  of  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore. 

2  So  called  from  the  place  in  Pennsylvania  where  the  first  wagons  of  this 
style  were  made.     Originally  used  for  freight  transportation  in  southern  and 
western  Pennsylvania,  they  later  became  the  usual  conveyance  for  emigrants 
to  the  West. 

3  The  population  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  grew  nearly  ten  times  a.* 
fast  as  that  of  New  England. 


Courtesy,  Cinted  States  National  Museum 

A  CONESTOGA  WAGON* 


SLAVE  STATES  AND   FREE  STATES  259 

were  frequently  being  added  to  the  Union,  in  the  South  as 
well  as  in  the  West.1  And  the  time  did  not  now  seem  far 
distant  when  other  States  would  have  to  be  formed  within 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  itself.  But  the  question  now  arose, 
and  we  shall  see  that  it  was  a  very  serious  one,  Should  these 
new  States  be  homes  of  slavery  or  of  freedom?  Vermont, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  four  of  the  States  that  were  ad 
mitted  to  the  Union  after  the  original  thirteen,  did  not 
allow  slavery.  In  the  States  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Lou 
isiana,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  however,  it  was  lawful 
to  hold  slaves. 

The  people  of  Missouri,  the  first  State  except  Louisiana 
itself  to  be  formed  out  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  were 
chiefly  Southerners.  In  1818  they  asked  Congress  to  admit 
them  to  the  Union,  with  slavery.  The  South  favored  the 
request  and  for  this  reason:  the  largely  populated  North 
out- voted  the  thinly  populated  South  in  the  Federal  House 
of  Representatives,  and  was  beginning  to  show  a  desire  to 
interfere  with  slavery.  But  in  the  Federal  Senate,  where 
each  State,  big  or  little,  has  just  two  votes,  the  slave  States 
and  the  free  States  were  evenly  divided  —  eleven  on  each 
side.2  Now  if  Missouri  came  into  the  Union  with  slavery 
there  would  be  twelve  slave  States,  which  would  give  the 
South  the  control  of  the  Senate,  and  thus  enable  it  to  de 
feat  any  anti-slavery  movement  that  started  in  the  House. 

The  Northerners,  on  the  other  hand,  declared  that  all 
States  created  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  should  be  the 
homes  of  freemen.  They  said  that  free  laborers  were  the 
only  really  valuable  agricultural  settlers,  and  that  such 
men  would  not  work  alongside  of  slaves.  Moreover,  they 
declared  that  slavery  was  a  bad  system  and  ought  no  more 
to  be  introduced  into  a  new  State  than  weeds  should  be 

1  Ohio  in  1803;  Louisiana  (the  southern  part  of  the  old  French  Province  of 
Louisiana),  1812;  Indiana,  1816;  Mississippi,  1817;  Illinois,  1818;  Alabama, 
1819. 

2  Free  States:  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,   Massachusetts,   Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

Slave  States:  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana. 


260    THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

sown  in  a  newly  opened  farm.  Then,  again,  the  North 
suspected  that  the  South,  which  wanted  free  trade,  would, 
if  it  could,  use  the  Senate  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  a  tariff 
for  protecting  Northern  industries. 

257.  The  Missouri  Compromise.   It  happened  that  about 
this  time  Maine  was  likewise  knocking  at  the  door  of  the 
Union  for  admission  as  a  State.    She  wanted  to  be  a  free 
~<T^^/^  State.     Southern  Congressmen  re- 

~j  fused  to  vote  for  her  unless  Mis 

souri  were  at  the  same  time  admit 
ted  with  slavery ;  for,  if  Maine  were 
permitted  to  enter  the  Union  alone, 
»  the  free  States  would  have  a  major- 

^L.  ity  in  the  Senate.   There  followed  a 

long  and  angry  debate.  The  only 
way  out  of  the  difficulty  seemed  to 
be  a  bargain  called  the  "  Missouri 
Compromise,"  that  was  adopted  by 
HENRY  CLAY  Congress  in  I82O.1  Its  provisions 

were  as  follows :  — 

(a)  Maine  was  to  be  admitted  as  a  free  State.   This  was 
done  in  the  same  year. 

(b)  Missouri  was  to  come  in  as  a  slave  State,  which  she 
did  in  1821. 

(c)  But  so  much  of  the  remainder  of  the  Louisiana  Pur 
chase  as  lay  north  of  Missouri's  southern  boundary  (parallel 
36°  31')  was  forever  to  remain  free.2 

Thus  the  Senate  was  still  evenly  divided  —  twelve  free 
States  and  twelve  slave  States.    Nearly  everybody  thought 

1  One    of  its  prominent  advocates  was  Henry  Clay,   who^  was   born   in 
Virginia  in  1777,  but  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  Kentucky.    His 
education  was  obtained  at  a  log  schoolhoyse,  and  as  a  boy  he  worked  on  a 
farm.  He  became  a  lawyer  when  twenty  years  old,  and  soon  adopted  a  political 
life,  being  several  times  a  United  States  "Senator,  and  for  many  years  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.    Clay  was  one  of  the  foremost  of  American 
statesmen  in  his  time,  and  a  powerful  debater.  He  was  several  times  nominated 
for  the  presidency,  but  failed  of  election.    He  favored  a  gradual  freeing  of  the 
slaves. 

2  Thirty-four  years  later  this  provision  was  repealed;   but  it  existed  long 
enough  to  make  Iowa  and  other  new  States  in  the  Northwest  free. 


THE  MONROE   DOCTRINE  .      261 

that  this  arrangement  would  be  a  permanent  solution  of  the 
slavery  dispute,1  and  for  a  time  our  people  were  happy 
over  it.  It  did  not  prove  to  be  permanent;  nevertheless,  the 
Missouri  Compromise  kept  the  peace  between  North  and 
South  for  nearly  thirty  years. 

258.  The  Monroe  Doctrine.  President  Monroe's  Admin 
istration  is  famous  for  still  another  event  of  great  import 
ance  —  the  announcement  of  what  is  known  as  the  "  Mon 
roe  Doctrine."  It  came  about  in  this  way :  For  seventy  years 
Russia  had  been  trading  for  furs  with  the  Alaska  Indians. 
At  the  opening  of  our  War  of  1812  she  began  a  fur-trading 
colony  in  California,  on  what  was  then  Spanish  territory. 
Soon  after  this  Mexico  and  several  other  Spanish  colonies 
in  Central  and  South  America  rose  in  rebellion  against  their 
harsh  mother  country  and  formed  free  republics.  Russia 
was  suspected  of  having  joined  an  alliance  of  several  Euro 
pean  monarchies  in  a  promise  to  help  Spain  win  back  her 
colonies.  Monroe  feared  that  if  this  were  true,  and  they 
succeeded  in  such  an  attempt,  Russia  might,  as  payment 
for  her  services,  ask  for  a  large  grant  of  Spanish  land  in 
America;  and  that  other  members  of  the  European  alliance 
might,  in  time,  also  seek  colonies  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Accordingly,  the  President  sent  a  message  to  Congress, 
December  2,  1823,  setting  forth  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine," 
which  European  nations  have  ever  since  accepted  as  our 
policy  toward  them :  - 

(a)  "  The  American  continents,"  said  he,  "  by  the  free 
and  independent  condition  which  they  have  assumed  and 
maintain,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects 
for  future  colonization  by  any  European  powers."   Russia's 
reply  to  this  doctrine  was  a  prompt  abandonment  of  all  of 
her  claims  to  our  Pacific  Coast  south  of  Alaska. 

(b)  Speaking  of  "the  political  system  of  the  allied  powers" 
of  Europe,  Mr.  Monroe  declared  "  that  we  should  consider 

1  Jefferson  did  not  think  so,  however,  for  in  writing  to  a  friend  he  said:  "This 
momentous  question,  like  a  fire  bell  in  the  night,  awakened  me  and  filled 
me  with  terror.  ...  It  is  hushed,  indeed,  for  the  moment.  But  this  is  a  re- 
rjrieve  only,  not  a  final  sentence." 


262    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to  any 
portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and 
safety,"  and  "  the  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposi 
tion  toward  the  LTnited  States." 

(c)  The  President  also  pointed  out  that  we  had  always 
acted  on  ^the  good  advice  given  in  Washington's  Farewell 
\ddress,  and  had  never  meddled  in  the  political  affairs  of 
Europe;  and  now  Europe  was  expected  to  keep  her  hands 
from  our  affairs.  In  short,  Monroe  desired  to  keep  "  Amer 
ica  for  the  Americans." 

259.  Our  northern  boundary  —  Oregon  under  joint 
control.  Still  another  important  event  of  this  Administra 
tion  was  an  agreement  with  Great  Britain  about  such  part 
of  the  boundary  between  the  United  States  and  British 
America  as  stretched  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  sum 
mit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Our  treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain,  by  which  the  United  States  obtained  its 
independence,  had  described  this  boundary  between  the 
two  nations l  —  as  far  westward  as  "  the  most  northwestern 
point  "  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods ;  west  of  that  lay  the  great 
Province  of  Louisiana.  When,  in  1803,  we  purchased  that 
province  from  France,  its  northern  boundary  was  not  de 
scribed  to  us  by  France,  for  no  one  then  knew  exactly  where 
it  was.  In  1818,  however,  our  Government  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  Great  Britain,  by  which  both  nations  agreed 
that  the  boundary  should  be  a  line  drawn  south  from  the 
northwestern  point  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  forty- 
ninth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  thence  westward  along 
lhat  parallel  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  All  land  north  of  this 
ine  was  to  be  Canada,  and  south  of  it  the  United  States; 
and  that  is  still  the  boundary  between  us. 

Beyond  the  Rockies  lay  the  great  Oregon  country,  now 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  British  Columbia,  whose  bounda 
ries  and  ownership  could  not  at  that  time  be  agreed  upon, 

1  But  so  little  was  known  at  that  time  about  American  geography  that  this 
description  was  very  vague.  It  required  many  surveys  and  treaties,  in  later 
years,  to  come  to  an  agreement  about  it  with  Great  Britain. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT     263 

for  it  was  claimed  by  both  nations.  It  was  therefore  decided 
in  this  same  treaty  that  the  Oregon  region  should  for  ten 
years  be  held  by  both  of  them  jointly.1 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States.   On  it  indicate  the  original  thirteen 
colonies;  the  region  settled  soon  after  the  Revolution;  and  the  region 
settled  soon  after  the  War  of  1 8 1 2.  Draw  the  outline  of  your  own  State, 
and  write  on  it  the  date  of  its  admission  to  the  Union. 

2.  Begin  to  make  in  your  history  notebook  an  outline  of  the  development 
of  the  slavery  question,  beginning  with  the  date  1619.    Note  every 
occurrence  in  which  the  question  of  slavery  was  brought  up.     (See 

"Slavery  "  in  the  Index.) 

3.  Jefferson  wrote,   "The  Missouri  question  is  the  most  portentous  one 
which  ever  threatened  our  Union."   What  did  he  mean? 

4.  What  did  the  Missouri  Compromise  really  settle? 

5.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Clay  received  the  title,  "The  great  Pacificator." 
Watch  his  career  .from  now  on,  to  see  whether  he  deserved  the  title. 
WThat  did  he  do  during  this  period? 

6.  Learn  the  portion  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  quoted  in  the  text.   Show 
if  possible  from  recent  history  that  this  doctrine  makes  the  United 
States  the  guardian  of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

7.  What  is  a  treaty  ?  Note  what  other  treaties  have  been  made  between 
1789  and  the  present  time.     (See  "Treaty  "  in  the  Index.) 

8.  Name  four  great  accomplishments  of  Monroe's  Administration. 

9.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  immigration  of  your  ancestors  to  this  coun 
try  or  of  their  migration  to  your  State. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  poor  traveler  on  the  National  Road  in  1817. 
Your  wife  is  ill,  and  your  wagon  has  broken  down.  Who  comes  to  your 
aid?  W'hat  is  the  fortunate  end  of  your  troubles?  Try  to  introduce  the 
spirit  of  the  time  into  your  descriptions  and  conversations. 

1  In  1824  General  Lafayette,  of  France,  who  had  aided  the  American  Revo 
lution,  revisited  the  United  States  after  an  absence  of  forty  years.  He  was  now 
nearly  seventy  years  of  age.  His  tour  lasted  almost  fourteen  months,  and  in 
cluded  the  principal  cities  in  each  State.  Everywhere  he  was  received  with 
great  friendliness,  especially  by  his  Revolutionary  comrades;  and  in  June,  1825, 
the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle,  he  laid  the  corner  stone  of  Bunker  Hill 
Monument.  As  a  partial  return  for  the  money  which  he  had  taken  from  his 
private  fortune  to  aid  the  American  Revolution,  Congress  presented  him  with 
?4,ooo  acres  of  "  any  unoccupied  public  lands  "  and  $200,000  in  money.  He  had 
<ost  what  was  left  of  his, property  through  political  changes  in  France,  but  the 
American  grant  made  easy  the  remaining  nine  years  of  his  life. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

CANALS   AND   RAILWAYS:    THE  BEGINNINGS    OF   TEMPERANCE 

REFORM 

1825-1829 

260.  Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal.  The  first  important 
event  in  the  Administration  of  President  John  Quincy 
Adams  l  was  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal,  which  connects 
the  Hudson  River,  near  Albany,  with  Lake  Erie,  at  Buffalo, 
by  way  of  the  Mohawk  River  Valley.  This  is  a  distance  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty-three  miles. 

The  canal  was  the  result  of  the  desire  of  Western  settlers 
for  some  better  and  cheaper  way  of  sending  their  crops  to 
Eastern  markets.  Governor  DeWitt  Clinton  of  New  York, 
a  man  of  foresight  and  energy,  persuaded  the  people  of  his 
State  to  undertake  the  great  and  costly  improvement.  At 
first  they  good-naturedly  laughed  at  the  scheme,  and  called 
it  "  Clinton's  big  ditch."  But  when,  the  "  ditch  "  was  opened 
to  traffic,  in  October,  1825,  with  impressive  ceremonies, 
everybody  wras  glad  that  the  Governor  had  persisted  in 
having  it  dug.  Great  crowds  cheered  him  lustily  as  he  rode 
in  a  gayly  decorated  canal  boat  from  Buffalo  to  New  York 
City.  The  enthusiasm  reached  its  height  when  he  solemnly 

1  John  Quincy  Adams  was  a  son  of  John  Adams,  the  second  President,  and 
was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1767.  As  a  child,  he  witnessed  from  a  distance  the 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  In  his  eleventh  year  he  went  to  France  with  his  father, 
and  at  fourteen  was  private  secretary  to  the  American  minister  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Returning  at  eighteen,  after  extensive  travels  through  Europe,  he  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  at  twenty.  Before  being  elected  President,  Adams  had  been  our 
minister  at  five  European  capitals,  a  professor  at  Harvard,  a  Boston  lawyer,  a 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  and  Secretary  of  State.  In  the  election 
of  1824  there  were  four  candidates  for  President  —  Adams,  Henry  Clay,  of 
Kentucky,  Andrew  Jackson,  of  Tennessee,  and  William  Henry  Crawford,  of 
Georgia.  None  of  them  received  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes,  so  the  House 
of  Representatives  was  obliged  (as  provided  in  the  Constitution)  to  decide  be 
tween  them,  and  chose  Adams.  After  his  presidential  term  he  was  a  conspic 
uous  and  useful  member  of  the  Federal  House  of  Representatives,  and  died  in 
Washington  in  1848. 


THE  ERIE   CANAL 


265 


emptied  into  the  sea  the  contents  of  two  kegs  containing 
Lake  Erie  water.  He  said  in  a  speech  that  this  act  was  to 
celebrate  "the  navigable  communication  which  had  been 
accomplished  between  our  Mediterranean  Seas  [by  which 
he  meant  the  Great  Lakes]  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean." 

Henceforth,  the  stream  of  traffic  to  and  from  the  West 
was  chiefly  along  this  new  route.  Before  the  building  of  the 
canal  it  had  taken  three  weeks  to  transport  a  barrel  of  flour 
from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  and  the  cost  was  ten  dollars;  after 


8«^M^h 
Ipt 
B 


A  CANAL  WITH   LOCKS 

This  shows,  on  a  very  small  scale,  the  principle  on  which  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  Erie 
Canal  are  constructed 

the  canal  was  opened,  it  took  but  a  week,  and  cost  only 
thirty  cents.  The  Western  settler  could  get  Eastern-made 
tools  and  supplies  at  a  much  lower  price  than  before;  and 
he  might  cheaply  and  quickly  send  his  wheat,  corn,  and 
live  stock  to  the  Eastern  markets.  This,  in  turn,  benefited 
the  people  in  Eastern  cities;  for  now  that  the  supply  was 
more  abundant  than  ever  before,  they  paid  less  for  their 
food.  In  short,  the  canal  made  living  and  farming  in  the 
West  almost  as  convenient  as  in  the  East ;  it  was  a  long  step 
forward  in  the  development  of  the  interior  of  the  continent.1 

1  The  Erie  Canal  long  continued  to  be  an  important  highway  of  commerce 
between  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  the  Great  Lakes.   But  after  railways  came 


266  THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


261.  The  first  steam  railways.  In  1807  Fulton  had  proved 
that  boats  could  be  propelled  by  steam.  Later  it  was  asked 
whether  "  steam  wagons  "  were  possible,  for  use  on  land. 
George  Stephenson,  an  English  engineer,  said  that  they 
surely  were  possible,  and  in  1825  he  demonstrated  this  by 

opening  the  first 
steam  railway  in 
England  -1  A  year 
later,  John  Ste 
vens  built  the 
first  steam  loco 
motive  in  Amer 
ica,  and  oper 
ated  it  on  a  lit 
tle  experimental 
railway  at  Ho- 
boken,  New  Jer 
sey.  But  for 
three  or  four 
years  little  more 
was  heard  of  this 
new  invention. 

Between  1828 
and  1830  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway,  which  had  wooden  rails  with 
a  flat  strip  of  iron  on  top,  was  built  for  a  distance  of  sixty 
miles  out  of  Baltimore;  its  destination  was  the  Ohio  River.2 
At  first  the  cars  were  drawn  by  horses,  although  unsuccess- 

its  use  was  not  so  great  as  before.  In  our  day,  however,  there  is  a  new  interest 
in  artificial  waterways.  In  1911  the  State  of  New  York  began  widening  and  deep 
ening  this  channel,  at  a  cost  of  a  hundred  million  dollars.  This  is  to  enable 
great  barges  carrying  a  thousand  tons  of  freight  safely  to  pass  between  Buffalo 
and  the  Hudson  River. 

1  A  timid  person  asked  Stephenson  what  would   happen   if  a  cow  should 
get  on  the  track,  ahead  of  his  steam  engine.    With  a  twinkle  in  his  eye,  he  re 
plied,  "'T  would  be  very  bad  for  the  cow!" 

2  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  the  first  "through"  railway  to  be  built  in 
America  —  that  is,  to  carry  passengers  and  freight   a  considerable  distance. 
But  several  other  short  roads,  using  horse  power,  were  being  built  at  the  same 
time  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 


ONE   OF  THE   FIRST   RAILWAY  TRAINS   IN 
AMERICA 

This  train  was  run  on  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  Railroad.  The  first  ex 
cursion  trip  was  made  from  Albany  to  Schenectady,  on  August  9, 1831. 
The  locomotive  was  one  of  the  earliest  built  in  America  for  actual 
use.  It  weighed  about  four  tons,  and  used  wood  for  fuel.  The  cars 
were  simply  stage-coaches  placed  on  flange  wheels 


THE   FIRST  STEAM   RAILWAYS  267 

ful  experiments  had  been  made  with  sails.  In  August,  1830, 
a  small  engine,  called  "Tom  Thumb,"  built  by  Peter  Cooper, 
of  New  York,  made  its  first  trip  over  thirteen  miles  of  this 
road.1  The  "  Tom  Thumb  "  could  follow  sharp  curves  and 
climb  steep  grades,  whereas  the  English  railways  were  quite 
straight  and  almost  level ;  and  it  could  go  much  faster  than 
any  of  the  English-built  engines.  It  was,  therefore,  better 
adapted  to  the  conditions  that  existed  in  this  country.  Pro 
gress  had  been  slow,  but  it  had  been  sure;  and  inventors 
were  much  encouraged  over  it.  By  the  end  of  1831  several 
American  railways,  which  before  this  had  been  using  horses, 
were  experimenting  with  steam  locomotives.  These  machines 
were  very  clumsy  and  ugly,  differing  greatly  in  appearance 
from  the  graceful  and  powerful  engines  now  in  use. 

Most  people  had  at  first  little  faith  in  these  noisy  and 
strange-looking  "  steam- wagons."  They  shook  their  heads 
and  expressed  doubts  as  to  the  sanity  of  the  rattle-brained 
folk  who  were,  as  one  writer  said,  "  proposing  to  hurl  their 
fellow  citizens  through  the  air  at  the  preposterous  rate  of  fifty 
or  sixty  miles  an  hour,  to  do  away  with  horses  and  drivers,  and 
to  use  up  all  the  coal  in  the  country  over  their  fantastic 
experiments."  2  Similar  objections  were  heard  against 
automobiles  and  electric  trolley  cars,  only  a  few  years  ago; 
but  like  the  railways,  they  also  seem  to  have  come  to  stay, 
for  people  realize  the  practical  advantage  of  rapid  travel, 
and  after  all  rather  enjoy  being  "  hurled  through  the  air." 

262.  The  crudeness  of  early  railways.  In  the  early 
years  of  the  railways,  however,  their  methods  and  equip 
ment  were  very  crude,  compared  with  what  we  are  used  to. 
For  instance,  it  was  not  at  first  thought  to  be  possible  to 
cross  the  Allegheny  Mountains  with  steam  locomotives. 
For  a  long  time  "  portage  "  cars  were  hauled  up  or  let  down 

1  The  "Tom  Thumb"  was  but  little  larger  than  one  of  our  ordinary  hand 
cars.    The  boiler  was  about  the  size  of  a  large  wash-boiler,  and  the  flues  were 
made  of  old  musket-barrels.    It  took  seventy-two  minutes  to  run  the  thirteen 
miles  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott's  Mills. 

2  The  people  of  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  voted  in  town  meeting  (1842)  to 
"use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  prevent,  if  possible,  so  great  a  calamity  to  our 
town  as  must  be  the  location  of  any  railroad  through  it." 


268    THE   PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 


U.  S.  MAIL  LINES 


PHIUL  WILMINGTON  &  BALTIMORE 
RAILROAD, 


over  the  steepest  parts  by  stationary  engines.  This  system 
lasted  until  about  ten  years  before  the  Civil  War.  The  passen 
ger  who  in  those  days  wished  to  go  farther  west  than  Pitts- 
burg,  must,  as  in  the  time  of  the  National  Road,  proceed 
by  steamboat  down  the  Ohio  River. 

For  many  years  nearly  every  little  stretch  of  railroad  was 
built  and  owned  by  a  separate  company.  The  rules  and 
gauges — that  is,  the  distances  between  the  rails — of  these 

various  lines  often  differed 
greatly  from  each  other, 
and  there  had  to  be  frequent 
transfers  of  "  through  "  pas 
sengers  and  freight.  But  lit 
tle  by  little  the  "  roads  of 
steel"  were  combined  into 
the  great  "systems"  that 
now  cross  our  entire  con 
tinent  in  every  direction, 
and  give  us  what  is  on  the 
whole  the  best  railroad  ser 
vice  in  the  world. 

263.  The  beginnings  of 
temperance  reform.  Hard 
drinking  was  then  far  more 
common  than  now,  among 
both  rich  and  poor,  and  it 
was  not  considered,  as  now,  a  disgrace.  Liquor  was  often 
given  to  ministers  at  "  donation  parties."  Sales  were  com 
monly  "  sealed  "  by  the  two  parties  taking  a  drink  together. 
Men  and  women  freely  drank  each  other's  "good  health" 
at  dinners,  "work-bees,"  and  other  social  occasions. 

Several  Boston  men  realized  the  grave  danger  of  this  bad 
habit  that  had  become  fastened  upon  the  nation.  They 
therefore  organized,  in  1826,  the  American  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Temperance.  By  temperance,  they  meant  the 
moderate  use  of  liquor.  This  reform  soon  became  quite 
popular,  especially  in  the  cities,  where  the  old  custom  was 


Bore  will  leare  ibe  Depot,  Elctenlbi  

Dally  (cf  ccpt  Sunday.)  al  8  o'rlocl.  A.  M.;  and  Dailt,  m  4,  P.  M. 
The  abo».  Lot.  will  KM**  Boliinoro  for  Ph.ladclpkin  Daily  (eueft 

SMd.J.I  .1  9  O'clock.  A.  M..  and  8  .Mock,  P.  M. 

The  Lior,  .,.  New  Ca.llc  aod  Freaoblowo.  by  SlcambMt  fran>  Ooch 

•ireel  WHart  will  be  djacontiioed  <D  aod  .fur  lhal  day. 


AND  F1TTS3UHOH. 


Depot.    Pa 


FREIGHT  ACCOMMODATION  LINE. 


A  RAILROAD   POSTER  OF  1845 


BEGINNINGS   OF  TEMPERANCE   REFORM     269 

at  its  worst.  Later,  temperance  societies  sprang  up  whose 
members  went  a  step  further  and  practiced  total  abstinence 
from  all  that  can  intoxicate.  From  that  time  on,  the  reform 
grew  in  strength,  until  to-day  the  United  States  is  probably 
the  most  temperate  among  all  the  great  nations  of  the 
world.  Indeed,  in  many  of  our  States,  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  prohibited  by  law. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  was  the  Erie  Canal  of  great  importance  in  1825?   Why  is  there 
now  a  revival  of  interest  in  it? 

2.  When  Charles  Carroll  broke  ground  for  the  building  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  he  said  he  considered  the  act  "  second  only  to  that 
of  signing  the  Declaration  of  Independence."    W'hy  did  he  think  so? 

3.  Find  out  the  names  of  some  of  our  longest  railroads.    Find  out  what 
lines  you  can  take  to  go  from  your  home  to  New  York;  to  San  Fran 
cisco.    Compare  the  present  rate  of  travel  with  that  of  1830. 

4.  Compare  the  relative  merits  of  canals  and  railroads  as  a  means  of 
transportation. 

5.  Prove  that  steam  and  electricity  have  had  a  powerful  effect  in  making 
us  a  nation. 

6.  What  new  mode  of  travel  is  interesting  us  to-day?   Who  are  some  of 
the  prominent  men  connected  with  the  working-out  of  this  idea? 
\Vhy  are  they  not  called  "rattle-brained  folk"  as  were  the  men  who 
first  experimented  in  steam  locomotion? 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

8.  Important  dates:  1825  —  Completion  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

1829  —  First  railroad  in  America. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  an  account  of  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  for  a  newspaper  or 
a  magazine. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  traveled  behind  the  "Tom  Thumb."  Describe  the 
trip. 

3.  Woodrow  Wilson  says  of  our  country  at  this  period,  "It  was  a  big, 
ungainly,  rural  nation."     Agricultural  communities,  not  cities,  had 
grown  up.  Contrast  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  United  States  in  1825  with 
such  a  view  of  to-day. 

4.  Ask  the  older  people  whom  you  know  to  tell  you  of  conditions  of  rail 
road  travel  in  their  early  days.   Tell  the  class  what  you  learn  about 
this. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 


THE       SPOILS    SYSTEM     :    BEGINNING    OF    ANTI-SLAVERY 
AGITATION 

1829-1837 

264.  Differences  between  the  North  and  South.  The 

North  and  the  South  differed  from  each  other  both  in  the 
physical  characteristics  of  the  land,  and  in  the  habits  and 
opinions  of  the  inhabitants. 

(a)  The  South  had  few  important  towns,  and  not  many 
factories.     The  principal  business  was  farming,  and  this 
was  done  on  large  plantations.  The  warm  Southern  climate 
is  well  suited  to  out-of-door  life ;  and  we  have  seen  that  the 
soil  of  that  region  is  adapted  to  the  raising  of  large  single 
crops,  like  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  and  indigo. 

The  North  has  a  colder  climate  than  the  South,  which 
leads  to  the  indoor  employment  of  many  of  its  people,  and 
thus  to  larger  centers  of  population  and  manufactures.  By 
1830  that  section  had  come  to  contain  many  prosperous 
cities  and  towns.  Numerous  factories  of  different  kinds  had 
been  established,  and  Northern  merchants  and  shipowners 
carried  on  a  profitable  commerce  with  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  farms  of  the  North  were  small,  compared  with  the  great 
Southern  plantations,  and  on  them  were  raised  a  consider 
able  variety  of  crops. 

(b)  Northern  manufacturers  had,  by  this  time,  come  to 
be  eager  for  high-tariff  legislation  that  should  virtually  shut 
out  all  foreign-made  goods.1     But  the  Southern  planters 

1  The  argument  of  the  manufacturers  was  that  a  high  tariff  would  encourage 
men  to  start  new  industries  in  the  United  States;  that  these  would  employ 
large  numbers  of  workmen,  at  good  wages,  who  would  purchase  produce  from 
the  farmers;  that  a  manufacturing  nation  could  be  independent  of  other  na 
tions,  in  time  of  war;  and  that  the  tariff  on  imports  would  at  the  same  time 
bring  much  revenue  to  the  Government. 


DIFFERENCES   BETWEEN   NORTH  AND   SOUTH     271 

would  have  liked  to  continue  their  trade  with  Europe,  which 
they  could  easily  carry  on  by  means  of  the  sailing-vessels 
that  took  their  crops  across  the  Atlantic.  They  were  opposed 
to  a  high  tariff,  for  it  caused  them  to  pay  large  prices  for  all 
their  imports.  They  thought  they  ought  to  be  allowed  "  free 
trade  "  —  that  is,  the  right  to  bring  over  to  their  planta 
tions  whatever  foreign-made  articles  they  wished,  free  of 
duty.  They  had  almost  no  manufactures  of  their  own,  and 
were  not  pleased  at  being  forced  to  pay  out  of  their  own 
pockets  for  "  fostering  the  infant  industries  "  of  New  Eng 
land. 

(c)  Northern  manufacturers  and  merchants  wanted  to 
sell  their  goods  to  settlers  in  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
For  that  reason  they  asked  the  Federal  Government  to 
deepen  the  rivers  upon  which  boats  and  barges  might  carry 
cargoes  toward  the  West;  and  where  necessary,  to  build 
canals  connecting  east-flowing  with  west-flowing  waterways. 
Their  wishes  were  heeded  by  Congress,  which  consented 
to  undertake  several  such  schemes  of  "internal  improve 
ments,"  some  of  them  at  great  cost.1 

The  South  was  provided  by  nature  with  as  many  navi 
gable  rivers  as  it  needed  for  its  own  ocean-going  vessels,  so 
was  not  much  interested  in  these  improvements.  The  cost 
of  them  ought,  Southern  statesmen  said,  to  be  met  by  the 
States  that  were  directly  benefited,  not  by  the  entire  Nation. 
The  fact  that  a  good  share  of  the  money  collected  at  the 
custom-houses  because  of  the  tariff  was  spent  on  internal 
improvements  was  very  annoying  to  the  South. 

(d)  The  North  had  almost  no  need  for  slaves,  for  it  was 
not  profitable  to  use  such  ignorant  and  shiftless  labor  in 
factories  or  on  small  farms.  She  had,  therefore,  by  this  time 
freed  nearly  all  slaves  within  her  borders  and  many  North 
erners  had  come  to  believe  that  slavery  was  wrong.    In  the 
South  slavery  had  long  been  established,  and  most  South 
erners  thought  it  a  proper  condition  for  the  blacks  to  be  in. 

1  Between  1824  and  1828,  two  and  a  third  million  dollars  were  voted  by 

Congress  for  this  purpose. 


272    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 


Many  Southern  planters  were  now  moving  into  the  West 
and  the  Southwest,  and  carrying  their  slaves  with  them. 
They  therefore  wanted  Congress  to  declare  the  new  States 
to  be  slave  territory  —  that  is,  territory  in  which  it  should 
be  lawful  to  hold  slaves.  The  Northerners,  however,  in 
sisted  that  these  States  should  be  free. 

Thus  on  the  three  great  political  questions  of  tariff,  inter 
nal  improvements,  and  the  extension  of  slave  territory,  the 
wishes  of  the  North  and  the  South  were  directly  opposed 
to  each  other.  As  neither  side  would  yield,  there  early  arose 

serious  disputes  between  the 
two  sections.  In  the  period  that 
we  are  now  studying,  these  dis 
sensions  led  slowly  but  surely 
toward  the  terrible,  and  prob 
ably  unavoidable,  Civil  War. 

265.  Election  of  President 
Jackson.  General  Andrew 
Jackson,  of  Tennessee,  who 
became  President  in  1829,  was 
extremely  popular  throughout 
the  country  as  a  military  hero. 
He  belonged  to  the  class  of 
Western  pioneers  who  had 
conquered  the  wilderness  by 
their  own  hard  work,  and  did 
not  look  with  favor  on  the  "aristocratic"  element  from 
which  all  the  Presidents  before  him  had  been  chosen.1 

1  Jackson  was  born  in  1767  on  the  border  line  between  North  and  South 
Carolina.  His  Scotch-Irish  ancestors  were  hardy  and  adventurous  folk,  who 
oncoming  to  America  went  almost  immediately  to  the  hilly  country  lying  west 
of  the  coast  colonies.  The  Scotch- Irish  were  about  the  first  people  to  establish 
homes  west  of  the  Alleghenies.  Andrew  was  the  son  of  a  frontiersman.  As  a 
young  man  he  became  a  champion  at  rifle-shooting  matches;  he  could  also 
break  and  ride  the  most  vicious  horses,  and  because  of  his  strength  was  famous 
all  along  the  border.  In  the  Revolution,  while  a  lad,  he  was  captured  by  British 
soldiers  and  cruelly  treated  because  he  would  not  black  an  officer's  boots.  Al 
though  he  never  had  much  opportunity  for  education,  he  practiced  law  for 
several  years  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  and  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  in  1797  and  again  in  1823.  We  have  already  seen  him  serving  in  the 
regular  army  as  a  general  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  later  in  the  Creek  and  Semi- 


ANDREW  JACKSON 


THE  SPOILS  SYSTEM 


273 


The  new  President  was  impulsive  and  high-tempered ;  he 
had  no  patience  with  men  who  did  not  think  as  he  did,  and 
was  fearless  and  independent.  The  common  people,  who  felt 
that  he  was  one  of  them,  admired  his  courage  and  sterling 
character,  honest  warmth  of  heart,  and  good  intentions. 

266.  "  The  spoils  system."  Before  Jackson's  presidency, 
the  Federal  Government  had  employed  clerks,  postmasters, 
and  other  minor  officials  on  the  same  principle  that  business 


Courtesy,  Library  of  Congress 

"CLEAR  THE  KITCHEN,"  A  CARTOON  OF  PRESIDENT  JACKSON 

Jackson's  harshness  in  overruling  his  Cabinet  and  members  of  Congress  is  here  carica 
tured.  He  regarded  as  personal  enemies  those  who  di  ffered  from  him  or  opposed  him 

or  manufacturing  houses  engage  their  assistants  —  that  is, 
competent  persons  were  selected,  and  they  w^ere  kept  in  office 
just  as  long  as  they  were  satisfactory,  no  matter  what  their 
political  party.  But  Jackson  turned  out  of  office  about  a 
thousand  government  employees  who  had  not  voted  for 
him  and  put  in  their  places  his  own  political  friends.  His 
principal  excuse  for  this  was  that  he  did  not  believe  the 

nole  campaigns.  Jackson  was  the  idol  of  his  troops  on  account  of  his  great  daring 
and  bravery,  and  had  such  tough  muscles  and  could  endure  such  great  fatigue 
that  they  called  him  "Old  Hickory,"  a  nickname  which  clung  to  him  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  served  eight  years  as  President,  and  died  in  1845. 


274    THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

men  whom  he  found  in  office  were  honest;  so  he  said  that 
he  would  turn  them  out.  He  also  believed  that  a  perma 
nent  office-holding  class  was  being  formed  in  this  country, 
and  that  every  taxpayer  ought  to  be  given  a  chance  to  hold 
office.  He  did  not  know  that  he  was  thus  beginning  a 
"spoils  system"  1  that  was  to  continue  in  the  Federal 
Government  until  quite  recent  years,  growing  to  enormous 
proportions.  It  still  exists  in  many  of  the  States  and  cities 
of  our  country.2 

267.  The  beginning  of  slavery  agitation.  As  early  as  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  thousands  of  Americans,  both 
North  and  South,  disliked  slavery.  Naturally,  this  senti 
ment  was  strongest  in  the  North,  where  slaves  were  few; 
nevertheless,  there  were  many  Southerners  who  were  quite 
as  much  opposed  to  human  bondage  as  the  Northerners, 
and  there  were  several  anti-slavery  societies  in  that  sec 
tion.3  But  it  was  in  the  North  that  the  violent  agitation 
for  abolition  began. 

In  1831  an  enthusiastic,  fearless,  and  talented  young 
man  named  William  Lloyd  Garrison  began  to  print  in 
Boston  a  little  paper  called  the  Liberator.  In  this  journal 
he  declared  that  slavery  was  a  sin,  and  that  "immediate 
and  unconditional  emancipation"  should  be  granted  to 
every  negro  slave  in  the  United  States.  He  asserted  that  as 
the  Federal  Constitution  allowed  slavery,  it  was  "a  cove 
nant  with  Death." 4  Later,  he  said  it  would  be  better  to  break 
up  the  Union  than  to  continue  under  this  sinful  Constitu 
tion;  then  the  slaveholders  of  the  South  would,  he  believed, 

1  This  term  was  invented  by  United  States  Senator  Marcy,  of  New  York. 
He  declared  that  "to  the  victor  belong  the  spoils."    This  meant  that  a  govern 
ment  office,  with  its  salary,  was  in  his  opinion  a  perquisite  of  the  party  winning 
the  election;  and  could  be  taken  just  as  "spoils"  or  "loot"  is  of  ten  taken  by  a 
conquering  army. 

2  Americans  are  now  realizing^that  the  Federal,  State,  county,  and  city  gov 
ernments  should  follow  the  business-like  methods  in  such  matters  that  now 
prevail  in  most  foreign  countries.    This  improvement  is  called  "civil  service 
reform."    "  Civil "  employees  of  the  Government  are  those  who  are  not  serving 
in  the  army  or  navy. 

8  Between  1820  and  1830  more  than  one  hundred  such  societies  were  formed 
Vi  various  parts  of  the  Union. 
4  A  quotation  from  the  Prophet  Isaiah. 


ANTI-SLAVERY  AGITATION  275 

be  so  anxious  to  rejoin  the  North  that  they  would  agree  to 
give  up  their  slaves  and  have  the  Constitution  amended, 
so  as  to  free  the  North  from  the  great  moral  wrong  of  com 
plicity  with  the  South  in  the  institution  of  slavery.  Some 
of  Garrison's  friends  tried  to  dissuade  him  from  talking  and 
writing  like  this,  for  he  was  angering  thousands  of  his  fellow 
countrymen.  But  he  indignantly  replied,  "  I  am  in  earnest. 
I  will  not  equivocate.  I  will  not  excuse.  I  will  not  retreat 
a  single  inch,  and  I  will  be  heard! " 

The  astonished  people  of  the  South  thought  that  the  man 
must  have  gone  insane.  They  said  that  not  only  was  he 
doing  his  best  to  break  up  the  Union,  but  that  such  talk 
might  cause  a  rebellion  of  the  slaves  against  their  masters, 
which  was  a  calamity  that  the  South  had  always  feared.1 
Even  in  the  North,  Garrison  was  thought  to  be  doing  great 
harm  to  the  country.  Mobs  hooted  him  when  he  spoke  at 
public  meetings,  and  once  some  rough  fellows  dragged  him 
through  the  streets  of  his  own  town.  However,  such  perse 
cution  did  not  in  the  least  stop  the  abolition  movement  in 
the  North.  Indeed,  it  grew  amazingly  on  account  of  this 
agitation.  Great  numbers  of  people  who  previously  had 
given  little  thought  to  the  matter  now  joined  the  two  thou 
sand  anti-slavery  societies  that  soon  were  formed  north  of 
the  Mason  and  Dixon  line.  Congress  was  bombarded  with 
petitions  from  these  societies,  asking  that  slaves  be  freed 
in  the  District  of  Columbia;  also  that  men  living  in  one 
Southern  State  be  forbidden  to  purchase  slaves  in  another 
State.2  So  numerous  were  these  petitions  that  Congress 
petulantly  voted  to  receive  no  more  of  them.3 

1  Soon  after  Garrison  began  his  agitation  a  small  slave  insurrection  did  occur 
in  Virginia,  in  which  about  a  hundred  blacks  and  sixty  whites  were  killed.   But 
it  was  proved  that  the  rebellious  negroes  had  never  seen  or  heard  of  Garrison's 
paper. 

2  Some  people  believed  that  slavery  might  slowly  be  abolished  by  purchas 
ing  the  slaves  from  their  masters.    This  was  done  in  the  West  Indian  colonies 
of  Great  Britain,  in  1833.    It  cost  the  British  Government  $100,000,000. 

3  John  Quincy  Adams,  the  former  President,  was  then  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  in  bitter  language  denounced  his  fellow  mem 
bers  for  denying  the  people  their  right  of  petition,  as  guaranteed  them  by  the 
Constitution  (see  the  First  Amendment,  in  the  Appendix,  page  xxi).  He  per 
sisted  in  offering  to  the  House  all  the  anti-slavery  petitions  that  reached  him. 


276    THE  PERIOD  OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

268.  Calhoun  revives  the  nullification  doctrine.  Mean- 
while  there  was  much  excitement  about  another  serious  mat 
ter.  In  1828  Congress  had  passed  a  tariff  law  that  levied 
higher  duties  on  imports  than  had  ever  before  been  col 
lected.  In  the  South,  where  it  was  called  "the  Tariff  of 
Abominations,"  there  was  intense  indignation,  and  several 
State  legislatures  passed  resolutions 
declaring  it  to  be  an  outrage. 

John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Caro 
lina,  then  Vice- President  of  the  United 
States,  was  the  leader  of  this  South 
ern  opposition  to  the  new  tariff  law.1 
He  now  startled  the  nation  by  reviving 
the  doctrine  of  "  nullification."  The 
tariff,  he  declared,  was  for  the  sole 
benefit  of  the  North  and  greatly  in 
jured  the  South ;  it  was,  therefore,  un 
constitutional,  and  he  said  that  his 
JOHN  c.  CALHOUN  State  would  be  justified  in  disobey 
ing  it. 

269.  "  Our  Federal  Union:  it  must  be  preserved." 
Thus  there  was  again  to  the  front  the  old,  old  question  that 
had  troubled  our  statesmen  since  the  close  of  the  Revolu 
tion  :  Which  should  be  the  stronger,  the  Union  or  the  States 
that  compose  it?  If  Calhoun  was  right,  and  any  State  might 
at  her  pleasure  nullify  a  Federal  law  and  prevent  its  enforce 
ment  within  that  State,  then  the  Union  was  indeed  a  mere 
"  rope  of  sand,"  no  better  than  the  Confederation  that  pre 
ceded  it. 

1  Calhoun  was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1782  and  graduated  from  Yale 
College.  He  became  a  memfcw  of  Congress  in  1811,  and  was  elected  Vice- 
President  in  1824  and  in  1828^  But  when,  in  1832,  his  State  nullified  the  tariff 
laws  of  1828  and  1832,  he  resigned  as  Vice-President  and  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  order  that  he  might  champion  the  nullification  policy. 
Mr.  Calhoun  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  men  of  his  times.  Everybody  re 
cognized  his  courage  and  honesty  in  contending  for  what  he  believed  to  be  right. 
Upon  his  death,  in  1850,  Daniel  Webster,  one  of  his  chief  opponents  in  debate, 
said  of  him:  "  He  had  the  indispensable  basis  of  all  high  character;  and  that 
was  unspotted  integrity  and  unimpeached  honor.  .  .  .  I  do  not  believe  he  had 
a  selfish  motive  or  selfish  feeling." 


LIBERTY  AND   UNION 


277 


President  Jackson  sympathized  with  the  South  in  its 
dissatisfaction  with  the  new  protective  tariff;  but  he  saw 
clearly  that,  however  wrong  might  be  that  law,  the  nation 
must  remain  strong  and  enforce  its  laws,  or  there  would  no 
longer  be  a  republic  in  North  America.  At  a  great  dinner 
of  Southerners  in  Washington  he  boldly  proposed  to  them 
this  defiant  toast:  "Our  Fed 
eral  Union:  it  must  be  pre 
served!  " 

Another  powerful  voice  in  fa 
vor  of  the  Union  was  that  of 
Daniel  Webster.  In  January, 
1830,  he  replied  in  the  United 
States  Senate  to  Senator  Hayne, 
from  South  Carolina,  who  up 
held  the  nullification  doctrine. 
This  famous  speech  thrilled  the 
North  and  made  her  people  feel 
more  strongly  than  ever  that 
true  patriotism  lay  in  strength 
ening  the  hands  of  the  Federal 
government.1  He  closed  with  the  ever  memorable  excla 
mation:  "  Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and 
inseparable!" 

In  1832  Congress  adopted  a  new  tariff  act,  that  lowered 
the  duties  to  about  what  they  were  before  the  law  of  1828, 
But  the  Southerners  declared  that  they  did  not  care  so  much 
about  the  amount  of  the  duties;  their  objections  were  chiefly 
against  protection  itself.  South  Carolina  voted  that  after 
the  first  of  February,  1833,  she  would  pay  no  duties  on 
articles  imported  through  the  Charleston  custom-house, 

1  Daniel  Webster  was  born  on  a  New  Hampshire  farm  in  1782,  and  died  in 
Massachusetts  in  1852.  Graduating  from  Dartmouth  College  he  soon  com 
menced  life  as  a  lawyer,  and  in  1813  was  sent  to  the  lower  house^of  Congress 
from  New  Hampshire.  He  soon  moved  to  Massachusetts  and  in  1822  was 
again  elected  to  Congress.  After  that  he  was  constantly  in  public  life,  serving 
in  both  branches  of  Congressand  in  the  Cabinet.  On  questions  of  constitutional 
law  Webster  stood  without  a  rival.  His  Reply  to  Hayne  is  considered  by  good 
judges  as  in  many  ways  the  greatest  speech  ever  delivered  in  Congress. 


DANIEL  WEBSTER 


278    THE   PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

and  would  offer  armed  resistance  to  any  Federal  officer 
who  should  attempt  to  collect  them. 

Preparations  were  at  once  made  to  send  troops  and  war 
ships  to  Charleston  to  enforce  the  law.  Before  their  depart 
ure  Jackson  dispatched  this  peremptory  message  to  his 
South  Carolina  friends:  "  If  a  single  drop  of  blood  shall  be 
shed  there  in  opposition  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
I  will  hang  the  first  man  I  can  lay  my  hand  on,  engaged  in 
such  treasonable  conduct!"  These  vigorous  words  were 


From  an  old  lithograph.   Courtesy,  Chicago  Historical  Society 

CHICAGO  (FORT   DEARBORN)  IN  1831 

This  sketch  was  made  at  the  time  by  Mrs.  John  H.  Kinzie,  wife  of  one  of  the  earliest  settlers  of  Chi. 
cago.  The  Kinzie  home,  on  the  north  bank  of  Chicago  River,  is  at  the  right  of  the  picture,  fronted 
by  poplar  trees.  Compare  this  illustration  with  the  one  on  page  432 

keenly  resented  in  the  South ;  but  by  this  time  it  was  clearly 
understood  in  that  section  that  a  forceful  man  was  in  the 
presidential  chair,  and  that  any  attempt  to  weaken  the 
Union  would  be  resisted  to  the  utmost  of  his  power. 

However,  the  quarrel  did  not  then  get  so  far  as  most 
people  feared  it  would.  Congress  was  inclined  to  soothe  the 
anger  of  the  South  and  in  1833  adopted  what  is  known  as 
"the  Compromise  Tariff,"  which  was  offered  by  Henry  Clay. 
It  provided  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties  on  many  ar 
ticles  of  necessity.  This  seemed  to  satisfy  the  South,  and 


THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT     279 

South  Carolina's  threat  of  nullification  was  not  carried 
out.1 

270.  An  American  Dictionary.  In  1828  Noah  Webster, 
of  Connecticut,  first  issued  his  famous  American  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language.2  Up  to  that  time  even  the  best- 
educated  people  had  different  ways  of  spelling  the  same 
English  word.  Webster  aimed  to  make  spelling  uniform  and 
introduced  several  changes  with  a  view  to  greater  simplic 
ity.3  In  our  day,  when  dictionaries  are  numerous  and  every 
person  who  has  been  to  school  is  supposed  to  know  how  to 
spell  correctly,  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  understand  what  a 
great  sensation  was  created  when  the  new  dictionary  ap 
peared.  4 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Be  sure  to  keep  up  your  outlines  on  the  slavery  question  during  the 
period  from  1829  to  1860. 

2.  What  arguments  did  the  Southerners  bring  forward  against  the  tarLf 
of  1828?   How  did  the  Northerners  answer  them? 

3.  What  internal  improvements  are  going  on  to-day?  By  whom  are  they 
supported? 

1  Another  stirring  incident  of  Jackson's  Administration  was  his  war  on  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States,  to  which  Congress  had  granted  a  charter  in  1816. 
This  institution  was  quite  similar  to  the  Federal  Bank,  described  in  section  215 
(page  219),  and  its  branches  in  the  leading  cities  of  the  country  came  into  com 
petition  with  the  State  banks,  which  were  popular  institutions.    Moreover,  the 
United  States  Bank  was  suspected  of  interfering  in  political  affairs,  and  it  had 
bitter  enemies,  especially  in  the  West  and  South.   When  its  charter  expired  in 
1836,  Congress  voted  to  renew  it;  but  Jackson,  who  hated  the  Bank,  vetoed 
the  bill,  and  the  institution  went  out  of  business.  There  was  much  popular  ex 
citement  over  this  affair. 

2  Americans  and  Englishmen  alike  were  then  using  a  lexicon  prepared  sev 
enty-three  years  before  by  the  celebrated  scholar,  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  of 
London.    But  hundreds  of  words  familiar  in  the  United  States  in  the  time  of 
Jackson  were  not  to  be  found  in  Johnson's  book.  Webster  worked  diligently  for 
twenty  years  on  this  great  volume,  and  it  contained  twelve  thousand  words 
and  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  definitions  not  in  Johnson. 

3  For  example,  Webster  omitted  the  k  after  c  at  the  end  of  words  of  more 
than  one  syllable  —  thus  "publick"  was  thereafter  to  be  spelled  "public." 
The  u  was  omitted  in  words  like  "honour,"  which  was  now  to  be  spelled  "honor." 
The  final  letters  re,  in  such  words  as  "chambre,"  "centre,"  and  "  theatre,"  were 
transposed  so  as  to  make  them  "chamber,"  "center,"  and  "theater."    These 
changes  were  accepted  by  most  Americans,  and  are  taught  in  our  schools  to 
day;  but  in  England,  the  old-fashioned  spellings  are  still  used  by  most  people. 

4  Another  innovation  of  that  time,  was  a  one-cent  newspaper  —  the  New 
York  Daily  Sun,  which  appeared  in  1833.    It  was  the  first  paper  published  in 
America  at  so  low  a  price. 


280    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Spoils  System"?  By  "Civil  Service  Reform"? 
Of  which  do  you  approve?    Why?    YVhat  government  employees,  if 
any,  in  your  city  or  town  are  under  civil  service  rules? 

5.  What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  "anti-slavery"  and  "aboli 
tion"? 

6.  Jackson,  in  his  answer  to  South  Carolina,  said,  "To  say  that  any  state 
may  at  pleasure  secede  from  the  Union  is  to  say  that  the  United  States 
are  not  a  nation."    Explain. 

7.  What  patriotic  service  did  Jackson  render  to  the  nation? 

8.  Account  for  the  popularity  of  Jackson  with  the  people. 

9.  Recite  the  quotations  from  speeches,  etc.,  given  in  this  chapter  and 
explain  the  circumstances  of  their  first  utterance. 

lo.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  a  weekly  paper  in  1832  upholding  Jackson's  course. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  were  a  page  in  the  Senate  at  the  time  of  the  Web- 
ster-Hayne  debate.    Describe  the  scene  in  a  letter  to  a  friend. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  received  a  dictionary  for  your  birthday  present  in 
1829.   WTrite  a  letter  of  appreciation,  speaking  of  its  value  to  you  and 
others. 

4.  Describe  and  dramatize  striking  incidents  in  Jackson's  life. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

A   PERIOD   OF   RECKLESS    SPECULATION:    THE   PANIC   OF    1837 

1837-1841 

271.  Election  of  President  Van  Buren.  Had  he  wished 
it,  Jackson  could  have  been  reflected  in  1836;  but  he  pre 
ferred  to  follow  the  now  well-established  tradition  that  our 


From  a  contemporary  engraving 

THE  CITY  OF  WASHINGTON   IN  1839 
A  view  from  the  White  House 

Presidents  should    remain    in   office    no   more    than   two 
terms.    He  was  succeeded  in  1837  by  Martin  Van  Buren  of 
New  York.1 
272.  A  period  of  reckless  speculation.    From  quite  early 

1  Van  Buren  was  born  in  a  village  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1782,  and  died 
there  in  1862.  He  was  a  lawyer  by  profession.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1821  and  next  served  as  governor  of  New  York.  He 
was  for  a  time  Secretary  of  State  in  Jackson's  Cabinet,  then  minister  to  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1832  became  Vice-President. 


282    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

days  in  the  history  of  our  country  there  had  been  a  wide 
spread  demand  from  the  people  for  paper  money.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War  each  State  had  issued  so  much  of 
this,  and  its  effect  on  business  had  been  so  disastrous,1  that 
the  Constitution  forbade  the  States  to  issue  any  more.  But 
this  provision  was  soon  evaded.  The  States  granted  charters 
to  numerous  small  banks  and  these  printed  and  circulated 
large  quantities  of  bank  bills.  The  competition  among  the 
banks  was  very  great,  and  they  were  so  eager  to  lend  their  bills 
that  borrowers  could  obtain  them  with  but  little  security. 

The  result  was  most  unfortunate.  So  long  as  money  could 
be  got  easily,  thousands  of  persons  went  into  all  manner  of 
reckless  speculations.  One  of  the  favorite  methods  of  specu 
lation  was  to  buy  lands  in  the  fast-growing  West,  with  the 
hope  of  selling  them  at  high  prices. 2  As  usual  when  money 
seems  to  be  plenty  and  people  are  spending  it  freely,  prices 
rose  rapidly.  This  was  especially  bad  for  people  living  on 
salaries  or  wages  that  increased  slowly  or  not  at  all ,  for  with 
the  increased  cost  of  everything  they  found  it  hard  to  get 
along. 

273.  The  panic  of  1837.  Both  Jackson  and  Van  Buren  felt 
uneasy  over  this  situation.  A  large  part  of  the  receipts  of 
the  Federal  treasury  now  came  in  the  form  of  bills  from  the 
State  banks,  and  many  of  these  were  worth  much  less  than 
the  number  of  dollars  printed  on  them.  Jackson  had  feared 
that  the  Government  would  suffer  great  loss  if  the  banks 
failed,  as  many  wise  business  men  prophesied  that  they  soon 
would  do.  Moreover,  he  wanted  to  discourage  the  use  among 

1  See  page  197. 

2  In.  1831  the  sales  of  Western  public  lands  brought  in  only  $2,300,000  to  the 
Federal  Government;  in  1836  they  amounted  to  $24,900,000. 

Ordinarily  an  acre  is  cut  up  into  five  house  lots;  but  some  of  the  speculators  of 
1836-37,  who  had  paid  to  the  Government  only  $1.25  an  acre,  made  their  lots 
as  small  as  the  tenth  of  an  acre;  and  these  were  sold  for  from  $10  to  $20  each. 
The  maps  of  this  land  often  showed  courthouses,  city  halls,  churches,  schools, 
factories,  and  public  parks  that  existed  only  in  the  imagination  of  some  dishon 
est  speculator,  for  not  a  tree  had  been  cut  or  a  prairie  sod  turned  in  that  locality. 
Some  of  the  so-called  "cities"  were  situated  in  great  swamps  and  other  impos 
sible  places.  In  Charles  Dickens's  novel,  Martin  Chuzzlewii,  the  hero  visits 
"Eden,"  one  of  these  much-advertised  Western  cities,  and  finds  it  to  consist  of 
a  score  o*  wretched  log  cabins,  half  of  them  empty,  situated  in  a  malarial  swamp. 


THE   PANIC   OF   1837 


283 


the  people  of  so  much  paper  money.  In  July,  1836,  he  is 
sued  an  order,  called  the  "specie  circular,"  that  the  Govern 
ment  would  henceforth  receive  only  specie  —  gold  and  silver 
-in  payment  for  Federal  lands.  The  circular  had  two  im 
portant  effects,  which  President  Van  Buren  had  to  face:- 

(a)  It  alarmed  the  bankers.     If,  after  this,  land  buyers 
would  not  take  bank  bills,  but  insisted  on  drawing  only 
specie  for  their  pay 
ments   to  the  Gov 
ernment,  the  banks 

would  have  little 
coin  left  to  loan  to 
anybody  else  or  to 
redeem  their  bills. 
Therefore,  many 
banks  refused  to 
lend  any  more  specie 
to  land  speculators; 
some  banks,  indeed, 
would  pay  out  no 
more  specie  to  any 
body.1 

(b)  Cautious  people  felt  that  if  the  bank  bills  were  not 
good  enough  for  the  Government,   they  were  not  good 
enough  for  them.  They  therefore  would  not  accept  for  their 
property  or  for  their  labor  any  such  bills  at  the  full  value 
printed  on  their  face;  as  for  the  bills  of  weak  banks,  they 
would  not  take  them  at  all.     Much  of  this  paper  money, 
therefore,  became  almost  worthless. 

1  There  was  another  source  of  trouble.  The  Federal  Government  was  now 
out  of  debt,  but  it  still  collected  a  great  deal  of  revenue  at  custom-houses,  under 
the  high  tariff  laws,  and  from  the  rapid  sale  of  public  lands.  Thus  it  had  more 
money  than  it  could  use.  Congress  therefore  in  1837  loaned  to  the  several  States 
nearly  $30,000,000  of  the  accumulated  surplus.  The  various  banks  throughout 
the  country,  in  which  the  Government's  surplus  was  deposited,  had  suddenly  to 
surrender  this  vast  amount  and  pay  it  out  in  specie  to  the  States,  which  would 
not  accept  bank  bills.  These  banks  had  been  badly  enough  hurt  by  the  specie 
circular,  but  to  have  it  soon  followed  up  by  this  new  order,  which  took  from 
them  about  all  of  the  coin  they  had  left,  was  more  than  most  of  them  could 
stand. 


From  a  contemporary  lithograph 
WALL   STREET,  NEW  YORK,  IN  1837 

The  building  at  the  right  is  the  Custom  House.  Trinity  Church  Is 
seen  at  the  end  of  the  street 


284    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

It  now  seemed  to  men  engaged  in  commerce  or  manufac 
turing  as  though  the  country  were  going  to  pieces.  They 
had  traded  their  goods  for  bank  notes  that  now  nobody 
seemed  to  want,  even  at  a  great  depreciation  in  value ;  they 
owed  large  sums  of  money,  but  found  it  almost  impossible 
to  get  loans  from  the  banks  to  pay  their  creditors.  Yet  they 
must  have  money  with  which  to  meet  their  expenses  and  pay 
their  employees.  In  order  to  raise  means  for  this  purpose 
thousands  of  men  began,  all  at  the  same  time,  to  offer  for  sale 
their  houses,  stores,  factories,  bonds,  and  other  property.  But 
whenever  there  are  more  goods  offered  for  sale  than  the  people 
want,  prices  are  sure  to  drop  suddenly.  That  is  what  then 
happened.  Nearly  everybody  was  eager  to  sell,  and  very  few 
wished  to  buy.  Banks,  fearful  that  depositors  would  draw 
out  all  their  money,  now  closed  their  doors,  and  refused  to 
pay  even  what  they  owed  to  the  Government;  factories, 
mines,  and  stores  shut  down  because  there  was  no  market 
for  their  wares ;  and  tens  of  thousands  of  wage-earners  were 
suddenly  thrown  out  of  work,  with  no  money  to  purchase  food 
and  clothing.1  Consternation  seized  the  American  people. 
No  man  had  confidence  in  his  neighbor,  for  credit  was  now 
entirely  destroyed.  The  day  of  reckless  speculation  was 
followed  by  a  night  of  black  despair.  The  panic  of  1837  will 
long  be  remembered  in  our  history.  It  was  several  years 
before  business  men  began  again  to  have  courage  to  enter 
upon  new  enterprises,  and  before  prosperity  returned  to  the 
United  States.2 

1  During  the  height  of  the  speculation,  or  "boom,"  described  in  paragraph 
272,  some  of  the  States  had  been  engaged  in  building  railways,  canals,  and 
highways  at  public  expense,  and  for^this  purpose  had  borrowed  enormous  sums 
of  money  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  England  —  nearly  $200,000,000  all  told. 

2  Up  to  this  time  the  Federal  Government  had  kept  its  money  in  banks, 
and  it  frequently  lost  much  by  failures  of  these  institutions.   In  1840,  however, 
Congress  established  a  national  treasury  at  Washington,  with  subtreasuries 
or  branches  in  a  number  of  other  cities.    The  Government  itself  does  not, 
therefore,  now  suffer  loss  when  the  banks  meet  with  disaster. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT     285 

/ 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Summarize  the  chief  causes  that  led  to  the  panic  of  1837. 

2.  Contrast  "speculation"  and  "investment." 

3.  Meaning  of  the  term  "currency";  "specie  payment."    Read  carefully 
the  statements  on  a  one-dollar  or  a  five-dollar  bill.  Discuss  the  meaning 
of  paper  currency.    How  do  our  bills  differ  from  the  paper  currency 
issued  by  the  State  banks  previous  to  the  panic  of  1837? 

4.  What  did  the  Government  learn  from  the  panic  of  1837? 

5.  What  security  have  depositors  against  bank  failures  to-day? 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Look  at  the  view  of  Wall  Street,  New  York,  in  1837  (page  283) ;  com 
pare  this  with  the  pictures  on  pages  96,  97,  and  438.    In  view  of  the 
growth  of  the  city  since  1664,  write  a  prophecy  as  to  its  extent,  popula 
tion,  and  conditions  of  life  in  the  year  2000. 

2.  A  man  buys  land  at  high  prices  in  the  boom  of  1836  and  is  ruined  by 
the  crash  of  1837.  After  years  of  poverty  he  strikes  oil  in  his  land  and 
makes  a  fortune.   Introduce  the  characters  and  tell  the  story. 


CHAPTER   XXVI II 

RELATIONS    WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND   MEXICO:    THE 
ANNEXATION    OF    TEXAS 

1841-1845 

274.  Election  of  Harrison  and  Tyler.  In  1840  the  Demo 
crats  renominated  Van  Buren  for  the  presidency.  The 
Whigs1  selected  as  their  leader  General  William  Henry  Har 
rison,  of  Ohio,  hero  of  the  famous  battle  of  Tippecanoe 
and  several  other  Indian  fights.  For  Vice-President  they 
named  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  who  was  known  as  a  Demo 
crat,  although  he  had  occasionally  acted  with  the  Whigs. 

Harrison  was  lovingly  called  by  his  friends  "  Old  Tippe 
canoe."  The  fact  that  a  portion  of  his  house  was  a  simple 
log  cabin  and  that  he  was  said  to  be  fond  of  cider  became 
what  the  politicians  call  the  "  keynote  "  of  the  contest.2 
Never  before  had  there  been  such  a  presidential  campaign. 
The  Whigs  held  immense  open-air  mass  meetings,  to  which, 
from  far  and  near,  whole  families  came  in  canvas-covered 
wagons,  on  horseback,  or  afoot,  and  for  days  together 
camped  out  in  tents.  Often  the  multitude  would  cover  many 
acres  of  ground.3  Eloquent  orators  held  them  spellbound,4 
and  they  were  fed  at  monster  barbecues,  where  animals 

1  After  1834  the  National  Republicans  called  themselves  Whigs.  This  was 
the  name  adopted  by  the  patriots  in  the  American  Revolution,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Tories,  who  remained  loyal  to  the  King.  A  Whig  was  supposed 
to  be  an  enemy  of  arbitrary  government. 

1  Van  Buren  was  accused  by  his  enemies  of  being  an  "aristocrat,"  .and  of 
using  in  his  home  a  tea  set  of  real  silver. 

3  A  great  Whig  camp-meeting  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  attracted  100,000  people, 
and  when  the  crowd  was  standing  it  took  ten  acres  of  ground  to  hold  it. 

4  In  the  slang  of  our  day,  political  speakers  are  called  "spell-binders."    In 
earlier  days,  they  were  called  "stump-speakers."  This  latter  was  in  allusion  to 
frontier  conditions,  when  the  forest  had  but  recently  been  cut  down  to  make 
room  for  farms  and  villages.    Political  speakers  addressing  out-of-door  crowds 
would  often  do  so  from  the  top  of  a  stump.   A  speaker  starting  out  on  his 
campaign  would  therefore  "take  the  stump  "  or  "go  stumping." 


THE  ELECTION  OF   1840 


287 


were  roasted  whole  and  barrels  of  cider  were  provided  for 
drink.  There  were  also  noisy  and  jubilant  marching  proces 
sions,  sometimes  several  miles  long.  On  such  marches  the 
Whigs  carried  gay  banners  bearing  political  mottoes,  and 
drew  a  small  log  cabin  on  wheels;  a  live  coon  was  chained 
to  the  cabin  roof,  and  a  barrel  labeled  "  Hard  Cider  "  stood 
by  the  open  door ;  while  the 
dusty  crowd  sang  lustily, 
as  they  trudged  along,  a 
ringing  lyric  which  set  forth 
the  qualifications  of  "  Tip- 
pecanoe  and  Tyler  too!  " 

A  writer  of  that  time 
reports  that  "  For  several 
months  the  people  gave 
themselves  up  to  the  wild 
est  freaks  of  fun  and  frolic, 
caring  nothing  for  business 
—  singing,  dancing,  and  ca 
rousing  night  and  day."  By 
an  overwhelming  vote  Har 
rison  1  was  elected  Presi 
dent,  and  Tyler  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

275.  Death  of  Harrison. 
The  new  President  was 
sworn  into  office  on  March  4, 1841.  He  was  then  sixty-eight 
years  old,  and  not  in  good  health.  The  long  and  tiresome 
journey  from  Ohio,  which  in  those  days  had  to  be  made 
mainly  on  horseback  and  canal-boat,  told  heavily  on  his 
strength ;  the  weather  was  disagreeable  on  inauguration  day, 
and  in  his  weak  condition  he  caught  a  severe  cold.  The 

1  William  Henry  Harrison  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1773,  the  son  of  Benjamin 
Harrison,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Before  gradu 
ating  from  college,  young  Harrison  left  his  studies  (1791)  to  enter  the  army, 
which  at  that  time  was  fighting  the  Western  Indians.  Here  he  won  a  fine  re 
putation,  and  while  he  was  governor  of  Indiana  defeated  Tecumseh's  warriors 
at  Tippecanoe!  Harrison  next  became  commandant  of  the  Northwest,  but  re 
tired  from  the  army  in  1814  and  went  to  live  on  his  farm  in  Ohio. 


from  a  campaign  almanac 

A  PICTURE  USED  IN  THE  HARRISON 
CAMPAIGN 


288    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

duties  of  the  position,  particularly  the  persistence  of  a  horde 
of  office-seekers,  were  too  burdensome  for  a  sick  man  like 
himself,  who  was  not  used  to  that  sort  of  life.  On  April  4, 
to  the  dismay  of  the  triumphant  Whigs  who  had  elected 
him,  the  old  Indian  fighter  suddenly  died,  being  the  first 
of  our  Presidents  to  pass  away  while  in  office.1 

276.  Tyler  succeeds  to  the  presidency.  The  Constitu 
tion  provides  that  when  a  President  dies,  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent  shall  succeed  him.   Harrison's  death,  therefore,  placed 
John  Tyler  in  the  presidential  chair.2 

277.  Tyler  breaks  with  his  party.  Tyler  had  been  elected 
by  the  Whigs  but  was  at  heart  a  Democrat,  and  soon  vetoed 
some  of  the  laws  passed  by  the  Whig  Congress.    This  led  at 
once  to  an  open  quarrel  between  Congress  and  himself. 
All  the  members  of  his  Cabinet,  except  Daniel  \Yebster, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  promptly  resigned.   The  Whig  Con 
gressmen  issued  an  address  to  their  fellow  Whigs  throughout 
the  country,  declaring  that  Tyler  was  no  longer  a  member 
of  their  party.3  During  the  three  and  a  half  years  remaining 
of  his  term,  the  Chief  Executive  of  the  nation  was  actually 
without  a  party,  so  of  course  he  had  no  influence  whatever 
over  Congress. 

278.  The    Webster-Ashburton    Treaty.    \Vebster    had 
stayed  in  the  Cabinet  simply  that  he  might  help  in  fixing 
the  international  boundary  line  between  our  country  and 
Canada,  particularly  along  the  Maine  border.    For  many 
years  there  had  been  a  somewhat  bitter  controversy  between 
the  two  nations  over  this  matter,  and  previous  efforts  to  ar 
rive  at  a  decision  had  failed.    In  1842  Webster  came  to  an 

1  As  it  is  often  bad  weather  in  Washington  early  in  March,  there  has  long 
been  an  attempt,  thus  far  unsuccessful,  to  change  the  date  of  inauguration  day 
to  a  better  season  of  the  year.    At  President  Taft's  inauguration  (March  4, 
1909)  there  was  a  storm  of  sleet  and  snow. 

2  Tyler  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1790,  and  died  there  in  1862.    Graduating 
from  William  and  Mary  College  in  1807,  he  became  a  lawyer.   Previous  to  elec 
tion  as  Vice-President,  he  had  been  a  member  of  both  houses  of  Congress.  Tyler 
was  not  opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery,  but  did  oppose  South  Carolina's 
nullification  doctrine.  As  Federal  Senator,  however,  he  would  not  vote  to  force 
that  State  to  obey  the  Federal  laws. 

8  The  politicians  call  this,  being  "read  out  of  the  party." 


TEXAS  BECOMES  INDEPENDENT 


289 


agreement  upon  it  with  Lord  Ashburton,  the  British  minis 
ter,  and  the  treaty  that  followed  is  known  by  their  names.1 
Soon  after  this  event  Webster  resigned  from  the  Cabinet. 

279.  Texas  becomes  independent  of  Mexico.  About  the 
year  1821  large  numbers  of  American  citizens,  among  whom 
were  General  Sam  Houston  and  Stephen  F.  Austin,  began 
to  settle  in  Texas,  which  then  belonged  to  Mexico.  By  1833 
it  was  estimated  that  over  20,000  of  these  pioneers,  mostly 
from  the  Southern  States,  had  taken  up  homes  in  that 
broad  region.  The 
Mexican  officials 
who  lived  in  Texas 
were  greatly  alarmed 
at  this  rapid  increase 
in  the  number  of 
Americans;  for  the 
latter  seemed  to 
think  that  they 
owned  the  country, 
and  it  looked  as 
though  the  Mexi 
cans  might  soon  be 
crowded  out  by 
these  aggressive  for 
eigners.  The  officials 
therefore  began  to  discourage  further  immigration  from 
the  United  States,  and  to  treat  the  newcomers  with  much 
harshness.  This  conduct  caused  the  Americans  to  rise  in 
rebellion  in  1836,  and  after  much  fighting  and  loss  of  life  on 
both  sides2  they  finally  succeeded  in  defeating  and  driving 

1  This  treaty  also  reaffirmed  the  agreement  of  1818,  by  which  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States  was  to  extend  westward  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  along  the  forty-ninth  parallel,  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

2  At  San  Antonio,  from  February  23  to  March  6,  1836,  a  small  body  of 
Americans,  who  had  collected  in  a  fort  called  the  Alamo,  heroically  resisted  a 
Mexican  force  of  ten  times  their  number.     Nearly  all  of  the  besieged  men 
perished  from  wounds  and  starvation,  but  at  last  the  fort  was  taken  by  the 
enemy,  and  the  six  survivors  were  murdered  by  their  captors.    "Remember 
the  Alamo!"  therefore  became  the  war-cry  of  the  Texas  patriots,  who  sought 
vengeance  for  this  deed. 


THE  ALAMO 


2go    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

out  the  Mexican  army.1  They  now  declared  themselves 
freed  from  Mexican  rule  and  organized  the  independent 
Republic  of  Texas;  or,  as  it  was  called  by  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  the  "  Lone  Star  State."  2 

280.  Annexation  of  Texas.  The  Texans  next  sought  to 
join  the  United  States.  At  first  they  were  refused  admis 
sion,  for  the  leaders  among  them  were  slaveholders  and 
wanted  to  remain  such.  It  was  pointed  out  by  Northerners 
that  this  proposed  new  slave  State  was  equal  in  size  to  nine 
or  ten  ordinary  free  States  in  the  North,  and  might  some 
day  be  cut  up  into  that  number.3  To  admit  it  to  the  Union 
would  very  greatly  extend  the  slave  territory  and  increase 
the  number  of  slaveholding  members  of  the  Federal  Senate. 
The  anti-slavery  men  of  the  No'rth  did  not  propose  to  allow 
this  if  they  could  possibly  help  it. 

Therefore,  although  Texas  persistently  knocked  at  the 
door,  she  was  kept  out  of  the  Union  for  several  years.  But 
in  the  spring  of  1844  President  Tyler  startled  the  country 
by  asking  the  Federal  Senate  to  agree  to  a  treaty  which  he 
had  secretly  made  with  the  Republic  of  Texas,  under  which 
the  "  Lone  Star  State  "  was  to  be  annexed  to  the  Union. 
The  Senate  rejected  the  treaty  by  a  large  majority.  There 
upon  the  Democrats,  who  were  friendly  to  the  South,  loudly 
demanded  that  Texas  be  annexed;  and  this  became  one  of 
the  burning  questions  in  the  presidential  election  of  the 
following  November. 

The  Democrats  won  this  election,  and  thus  clearly  showed 
that  the  majority  of  our  people  favored  the  admission  of 
Texas  as  a  State.  Congress,  therefore,  promptly  yielded  to 
their  demand  in  March,  1845. 4 

1  The  final  struggle  was  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  April  21,  1836,  wherein 
eight  hundred  Texans,  under  Houston,  defeated  five  thousand  Mexicans,  led 
by  Santa  Anna,  President  of  Mexico. 

This  was  because  the  flag  of  the  Texan  Republic  contained  but  one  star. 

3  Texas  is  nearly  eight  times  the  size  of  the  large  State  of  New  York.  Daniel 
Webster  declared  that  it  is  so  broad  that  a  bird  could  not  fly  across  it  in  a  week. 

*  The  Republic  of  Texas  owed  debts  amounting  to  $7,500,000.  These  were 
paid  by  the  United  States.  Our  people  then  considered  this  an  enormous  sum; 
and  as  it  had  to  be  collected  from  them  by  taxation,  the  saying  was  common 
that  the  name  "Texas"  was  but  a  misspelling  of  the  word  "Taxes." 


THE  TELEGRAPH  29! 

281.  Invention  of  the  telegraph.  Just  at  the  time  when 
President  Tyler  was  astonishing  our  grandfathers  with  his 
Texan  annexation  treaty,  the  citizens  of  Washington  and 
Baltimore,  and  the  villagers  and  farmers  living  between 
these  two  cities,  were  filled  with  merriment  over  certain 
curious  experiments  being  carried  on  by  a  New  York  pro 
fessor,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse.1  This  eccentric  person,  with  a 
gang  of  workmen,  was  planting  tall  poles  by  the  roadside, 
upon  which  were  strung  slender  copper  wires.  Through 
these  wires  the  Professor  declared  he  was  going  to  transmit 
electric  signals  between  the  two  cities  —  a  distance  of  forty 
miles  —  as  quick  as  lightning.  By  making  these  signals  long 
or  short,  he  explained  that  he  could  spell  out  words;  and 
from  these  words,  of  course,  entire  messages  might  be 
made  up.  But  most  amazing  of  all,  people  thought,  was  the 
fact  that  Congress  had  in  a  moment  of  good  nature  given 
this  unpractical  dreamer  $30,000  to  help  him  pay  the  cost 
of  the  ridiculous  experiment. 


WHAT        HATH 

GOD            WROUG          HT 

THE   FIRST   MESSAGE   SENT   BY  THE   TELEGRAPH    INSTRUMENT 

In  the  Morse  alphabet,  different  combinations  of  dashes,  dots,  and  spaces  Indicate  the  various  letters. 

The  appropriate  letter  is  here  inserted  below  each  symbol 

May  24,  1844,  was  a  day  ever  to  be  remembered  in  the 
history  of  civilization.  The  Washington  end  of  those  little 
copper  wires  led  into  the  room  of  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court,  in  the  Capitol,  and  was  attached  to  a  crude  tele 
graphic  sounder.  Seated  before  this  instrument,  which  was 
of  his  own  invention,  Professor  Morse  ticked  off  the  words, 
"  What  hath  God  wrought."  2  Almost  instantly  this  mes- 

1  Professor  Morse  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1791,  and  died  in  New  York 
City  in  1872.  After  graduating  from  Yale,  he  began  life  as  a  portrait-painter, 
but,  after  considerable  success  in  this  field,  turned  his  attention  to  the  study 
of  electricity.  As  early  as  1835,  while  a  professor  in  the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  he  said  that  he  had  hopes  of  some  day  being  able  to  telegraph 
around  the  world.  But  until  aided  by  Congress  he  was  almost  penniless;  for 
he  had  spent  all  his  money  in  experiments.  When  at  last  he  won  success,  he 
became  very  wealthy,  and  received  honors  from  nearly  every  civilized  country. 

a  These  words,  dictated  by  one  of  Morse's  young  lady  friends,  are  a  quota- 


292    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

sage  was  received  by  Morse's  assistant  at  the  Baltimore 
end  of  the  line,  and  he  triumphantly  repeated  it  back  to  the 
sender  in  Washington.  The  astonished  guests  who  had  wit 
nessed  this  experiment  could  hardly  believe  that  telegraph 
wires  would  in  time  carry  news  not  only  across  the  conti 
nent,  but  under  the  ocean ;  yet  these  were  among  Professor 
Morse's  prophecies,  and  we  are  familiar  with  the  develop 
ments  of  his  wonderful  invention. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Make  a  log  cabin,  mount  some  of  the  banners,  and  have  a  parade  such 
as  took  place  in  1840. 

2.  Why  was  Van  Buren  defeated  for  reelection? 

3.  State  the  causes  which  taxed  the  physical  strength  of  Harrison.  Briefly 
discuss  whether  a  new  President  in  our  time  suffers  from  such  causes. 

4.  Note  from  the  index  of  this  book  what  other  international  controver 
sies  than  the  one  mentioned  in  this  chapter  have  been  settled  by  treaty 
or  by  arbitration.    (See  "  Treaty  "  or  "  Arbitration  "  in  the  Index.) 

5.  Make  a  brief  outline  of  the  successive  events  relating  to  Texas. 

6.  It  is  suggested  that  some  boy  interested  in  electricity  bring  his  appa 
ratus  to  class  and  explain  its  operation;  and  that  some  other  pupil 
give  the  history  of  the  uses  of  electricity. 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Contrast  the  trip  taken  by  Harrison  to  his  inauguration  with  the 
similar  trip  taken  by  the  present  President. 

2.  Write  a  letter  of  approval  to  Webster  for  remaining  in  the  Cabinet 
until  the  work  which  he  had  begun  was  completed. 

3.  Read  Amelia  Barr's  Remember  the  Alamo  and  tell  the  story   of   the 
Alamo  to  the  class. 

4.  Describe  the  interest  and  astonishment  of  the  group  present  at  the 
trial  of  the  telegraph. 

tion  from  Numbers  xxiu,  23.  The  original  paper  on  which  were  printed  the 
telegraphic  characters  making  this  message  can  still  be  seen  in  the  Athenaeum 
at  Hartford,  Connecticut. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

THE  OREGON  QUESTION,  EXPLORATIONS,  AND  THE  MEXICAN 
WAR:  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  GOLD  IN  CALIFORNIA 

1845-1849 

282.  Election  of  President  Polk.  The  Democrats  carried 
the  next  presidential  election,  their  candidate  l  being  James 
K.  Polk,2  of  Tennessee,  who  was  inaugurated  on  March  4, 
1845. 

283.  Our  claims  to  the  Oregon  country.  Oregon  was  the 
name  popularly  given,  in  those  days,  to  the  entire  stretch 
of  country  north  of  California,  which  still  belonged  to  Mex 
ico,  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
seacoast.    Our  Government  claimed  that  we  owned  all  this 
region  as  far  north  as  the  parallel  of  54°  40',  which  is  the 
southern  boundary  of  Alaska,  and  it  based  this  claim  on 
three  facts :  — 

(a)  In  1792  Captain  Robert  Gray,  a  Boston  sea-captain, 
discovered  the  Columbia  River,  which  he  named  after  his 
ship. 

(b)  In   1805   Captains  Lewis  and  Clark  explored   that 

1  The  convention  that  nominated  Polk  was  held  at  Baltimore  in  May,  1844. 
The  first  public  message  to  be  sent  over  Morse's  new  telegraph  line  was  one  noti 
fying  Silas  Wright  in  Washington  of  his  nomination  as  Vice-President,  which 
Wright  at  once  declined  by  wire.    His  dispatch  was  read  to  the  convention, 
whose  astonished  members  could  not  believe  it  to  be  genuine,  because  so  little 
time  had  elapsed  between  the  original  telegram  and  the  reply.    They  there 
fore  adjourned  until  the  following  day,  in  order  that  a  committee  might  be 
sent  to  Washington  "to  get  reliable  information." 

2  Polk  was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1795,  and  died  in  Tennessee  in  1849, 
about  three  and  a  half  months  after  the  close  of  his  term.   Like  most  of  his 
predecessors,  he  was  trained  as  a  lawyer.    Before  becoming  President  he  served 
fourteen  years  in  Congress  and  was  for  a  time  governor  of  Tennessee.    Among 
the  Presidents  he  was  the  earliest  instance  of  a  "  dark  horse  "  candidate.   This 
name  is  given  by  politicians  to  a  man  not  widely  known  throughout  the  country, 
whose  candidacy  is  concealed  until  the  last  moment. 


294    THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

stream  from  its  headwaters  to  the  sea,  and  spent  a  winter 
near  its  mouth. 

(c)  In  1811  Americans  established  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  the  fur- trading  post  of  Astoria. 

On  the  other  hand,  Great  Britain  declared  that  so  much 
of  Oregon  as  lay  between  Alaska  and  the  Columbia  River, 
latitude  46° ,  rightfully  belonged  to  her,  for  the  reason  that 
it  was  discovered  by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  and  afterward  vis 
ited  by  the  English  explorers  Cook,  Vancouver,  and  Mac 
kenzie. 

In  1818  the  two  countries  had  agreed  that  they  would 
jointly  occupy  the  disputed  district,  leaving  to  the  future 
the  question  of  the  location  of  the  boundary.  English  and 
American  fur  traders  were  rivals,  therefore,  side  by  side, 
in  a  large  business  with  Indian  tribes  living  along  the  sea- 
coast  and  up  the  Columbia. 

284.  The  Oregon  Trail.  As  far  back  as  1832  small  Ameri 
can  settlements  began  to  be  planted  in  the  Oregon  country, 
and  others  soon  followed.  Among  the  most  enterprising  of 
the  earliest  settlers  were  missionaries,  who  cultivated  farms, 
but  spent  most  of  their  time  in  teaching  Christianity  to 
the  Indian  tribes  along  what  we  still  call  the  Northwest 
Coast.1 

Many  of  the  fur  traders  and  missionaries  went  from  the 
Eastern  States  to  this  distant  part  of  our  land  by  means 
of  sailing-vessels  going  around  Cape  Horn.  But  when  the 
''great  immigration  "  thither  began,  in  1843,  the  majority 
of  the  settlers  traveled  over  what  was  known  as  the  Oregon 
Trail,  a  rude,  ungraded  wagon  track,  two  thousand  miles 
long,  that  extended  across  prairies  and  over  mountains  from 
Missouri  to  the  valley  of  the  Columbia. 

1  One  of  the  most  prominent  of  these  missionary  pioneers  was  Dr.  Marcus 
Whitman,  a  physician.  He  and  Rev.  Henry  H.  Spalding  went  to  Oregon 
in  1836,  with  their  wives.  They  traveled  with  a  wagon  over  South  Pass,  and 
the  two  ladies  were  the  first  white  women  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
the  winter  of  1842-43  Dr.  Whitman  made  a  difficult  trip  eastward  over  the 
mountains,  and  nearly  perished  in  the  terrible  snow  and  sleet  storms  which 
overtook  him.  He  visited  Eastern  cities  and  aroused  much  interest  both  in  the 
Oregon  missions  and  in  emigration  to  that  region. 


THE  OREGON  TRAIL 


295 


It  generally  took  about  three  months  to  make  this  long 
and  weary  overland  journey.  In  dry  weather  the  path  lay 
thick  with  dust;  in  rainy  seasons  it  became  a  sea  of  mud. 
Deep  gullies  and  great  swamps  made  travel  difficult  in  some 
places,  and  now  and  then  broad  rivers  must  be  crossed  either 
by  rafts  or  by  swimming.  Game  was  generally  plentiful,  but 
sometimes  it  was  scarce,  and  then  there  was  little  food  for 
human  beings.  In  droughts  the  animals  suffered  piteously 
from  lack  of  grass  and  water.  Terrible  storms  sometimes 
swept  over  the 
plains  and  the 
mountains;  and 
now  and  then  a 
belatedcompany 
was  obliged  to 
endure  the  fierce 


Copyright,  C.  H.  Nicholt 

AN   EMIGRANT   TRAIN  ATTACKED   BY  INDIANS 


rigors  of  a  moun 
tain  wrinter. 

From  the  fact 
that  the  travel 
ers  were  often 
attacked  by  In 
dians,  it  was  ne 
cessary  to  band  themselves  together  in  caravans  and  go 
heavily  armed.  Women,  children,  and  household  goods  were 
carried  in  great  wagons  with  canvas  tops,  which  at  a  dis 
tance  so  much  resembled  sails  that  these  vehicles  were  called 
"prairie  schooners."  The  men  and  older  boys  rode  along 
side  on  horses,  driving  herds  of  cattle,  and  acting  both  as 
hunters  and  as  protectors  of  the  caravan.1 

285.  "Fifty-four  forty  or  fight"  Now  that  large  numbers 
of  Americans  were  living  in  the  Oregon  country,2  the  United 
States  might  well  lay  claim  to  it  solely  by  right  of  possession, 
which  has  always  been  considered  the  strongest  possible 

1  In  the  year  1843  over  a  thousand  bold  and  restless  frontiersmen  traveled 
over  the  Oregon  Trail  to  the  fertile  fields  of  the  Columbia  River  Basin;  and  the 
number  steadily  grew,  until  in  1845  it  reached  nearly  six  thousand. 

2  In  1846  the  number  was  estimated  at  6000. 


296    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

title  that  a  nation  may  have  to  a  new  land.  There  were, 
to  be  sure,  a  good  many  British  fur  traders  in  the  region, 
living  in  small  forts  which  protected  them  and  their  goods 
from  the  Indians.  As  yet  these  men  had  planted  no  real 
settlements,  but  preparations  had  been  made  by  some  of 
th&m  to  bring  in  a  party  of  English  farmers  from  Canada. 
The  American  pioneers  had  suffered  great  hardships  in 
order  to  reach  and  occupy  this  land,  and  now  felt  alarmed  at 
the  prospect  of  having  rivals  from  a  foreign  country;  they 
were  therefore  anxious  to  know  certainly  whether  or  not 
they  were  living  on  United  States  territory.  The  Federal 
Government  was  accordingly  asked  to  make  a  permanent 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  settle  this  question  of  own 
ership  at  once. 

Most  Americans  thought  there  was  no  reason  whatever 
to  doubt  that  we  owned  Oregon.  One  of  the  planks  of  the 
Democratic  platform l  in  the  presidential  election  of 
1844  declared  that  "  our  title  to  the  whole  of  the  territory 
of  Oregon  is  clear  and  unquestionable,"  as  far^orth  as  the 
parallel  of  54°  40'.  During  the  campaign  Democrats  de 
fiantly  cried,  "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight!  "  On  this  clear- 
cut  issue  they  won  the  election. 

A  treaty  without  war,  however,  was  made  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  in  1846,  by  which  each  very 
sensibly  yielded  a  little  to  the  other,  and  the  forty-ninth 
parallel  was  decided  on  as  the  boundary  between  the  respec 
tive  countries,  all  the  way  westward  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.2  In  this  manner  we  acquired  an 
area  nearly  equal  to  six  States  the  size  of  New  York. 
Oregon  was  made  a  Territory  in  1848;  but  later  it  was 
divided  into  the  States  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  a 
portion  was  given  to  Idaho. 

1  The  "platform"  of  a  party  is  the  declaration  of  principles  on  which  it 
"stands."  Each  separate  declaration  is  called  a  "plank."  Another  Demo 
cratic  "plank,"  in  1844,  was  the  annexation  of  Texas,  referred  to  in  chapter 

XXVIII. 

2_  The  international  boundary  is  marked  every  few  miles  by  "monuments," 
which  consist  either  of  pillars  of  iron  or  wood,  or  of  mounds  of  earth  or  stone. 


WAR  WITH  MEXICO 


297 


286.  The  Texas  boundary  dispute.   The  people  of  Texas 
claimed  that  their  western  boundary  was  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  from  its  mouth  to  its  source;  and  beyond  that,  a  line 
extending   northward  to  the  forty-second   parallel.1   The 
Mexicans,  however,  declared  that  the  proper  boundary  was 
the  Nueces  River,  and  they  threatened  to  eject  the  many 
Americans  who  had  settled  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Nueces. 

This  dispute  aroused  much  excitement  in  the  United 
States.  Texas  had  been  settled  by  Southerners,  and  was 
slaveholding  territory.  The  lead 
ing  men  of  the  South  naturally 
took  the  side  of  the  Texans,  who 
were  trying  to  make  that  State 
just  as  big  as  possible.  Some  of 
the  leaders  said  that  if  Mexico 
carried  out  her  threats,  we  ought 
to  declare  war  against  her  and 
seize  the  territory  in  question; 
but  Northern  statesmen  replied 
that  such  a  land-grabbing  war 
against  a  friendly  neighbor  would 
be  very  unjust. 

287.  Our  war  with   Mexico. 
President  Polk  took  the  Southern 
view,  and  sent  General  Zachary 
Taylor  into  the  disputed  district 
to  hold  the  Rio  Grande  Valley 
for  the  United  States.  Taylor  es 
tablished  himself  at  Fort  Brown,  opposite  Matamoras,  but 
some  three  months  after  his  arriva|Ftl|e  Mexicans  crossed 
the  Rio  Grande  and  attacked  him.    Mexico  had  thus  begun 
the  war,  which  was  what  the  President  wanted;  he  was  now 
able  to  tell  Congress  that  our  neighbor  had  "  invaded  our 
territory,  and  shed  American  blood  upon  the  American 

1  This  would  have  included  the  eastern  half  of  the  present  New  Mexico  and 
a  portion  of  southeastern  Colorado. 


THE  TEXAS-MEXICAN   FRON 
TIER 


298    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

soil." *  Congress  thereupon,  on  May  13, 1846,  declared  that 
Mexico  had  commenced  to  fight  us,  "  notwithstanding  all 
our  efforts  to  avoid  it." 

The  United  States  at  once  hurried  50,000  volunteers  to 
the  front,  besides  as  many  men  of  the  regular  army  as 
could  be  spared.  Our  forces  were  much  more  intelligent  and 
better  trained  than  the  Mexicans,  and  had  larger  and  better 
supplies  of  clothing,  food,  arms,  and  ammunition.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  had  fewer  soldiers  in  the  field  than  had 
the  enemy,  who  had  the  additional  advantage  of  fighting  on 
their  own  ground.  Nevertheless,  our  army  won  all  of  the 
several  spirited  battles  that  occurred  during  the  following 
sixteen  months.2 

The  real  end  of  the  war  came  when  General  Winfield 
Scott,  the  American  commander-in-chief ,  made  a  triumphal 
entry  into  the  City  of  Mexico.  By  this  time  the  Mexicans 
saw  that  further  resistance  was  useless,  and  peace  followed 
in  February,  1848. 3 

288.  Fremont's  explorations.  While  these  stirring  events 
were  taking  place  in  Mexico,  the  unfortunate  Mexicans 
were  also  losing  their  hold  upon  New  Mexico  and  California. 
But  in  order  to  understand  what  was  going  on  there,  we  must 
turn  back  to  the  year  1842,  when  preparations  were  being 
made  for  the  great  rush  of  pioneers  to  Oregon.  At  that 
time  President  Tyler  sent  Lieutenant  John  C.  Fremont,  an 
army  engineer,  to  explore  the  South  Pass  in  wrhat  is  now 
Wyoming,  to  see  if  that  were  not  the  best  place  for  the 
Oregon  Trail  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Fremont's  guide  was    Kit  Carson,4  of  New  Mexico,  a 

1  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  Taylor  was  really  invading  soil 
that  was  claimed  by  Mexico.    He  was  seeking,  under  the  President's  orders, 
to  provoke  Mexico  into  a  quarrel. 

2  In  the  Civil  War  most  of  the  officers  prominent  in  the  Mexican  War  fought 
in  either  the  Union  or  the  Confederate  army. 

3  Nearly  all  American  historians  agree  with  General  Grant,  who  in  his 
Personal  Memoirs  calls  the  Mexican  War  "a  war  of  conquest "  against  a  weaker 
power. 

4  Kit  Carson  was  a  great  hunter,  and  knew  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  thor 
oughly  as  any  man  could  in  those  days.  Much  of  the  success  of  Fremont's  explo 
rations  is  due  to  him.    He  was  the  best  of  guides;  he  was  wise  in  dealing  with 


FREMONT'S  EXPLORATIONS 


299 


famous  scout,  who  was  also  with  him  on  later  expeditions 
into  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  long  hazardous  journey 
was  successful,  and  the  leader  brought  back  much  valuable 
information  about  the  great  mountains  of  the  West. 

He  went  out  again  in  1843,  this  time  over  the  Santa  F6 
Trail  —  a  path  across  the  plains  and  mountains  that  had 


TRAILS  TO  THE  WEST,  AND  ROUTES  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  RAILROADS 

TO  THE  PACIFIC 

for  many  years  been  used  by  traders,  hunters,  and  explorers 
between  Kansas  City  and  the  capital  of  New  Mexico.  After 
many  perilous  adventures  Fremont  turned  north  to  explore 
the  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  reached  the  Pacific  by 
way  of  Columbia  River,  having  carefully  examined  and 
mapped  all  of  the  country  along  the  way.  This  great  expedi- 

the  Indians,  who  both  loved  and  feared  him ;  and  he  was  noted  for  his  modesty. 
Later,  Carson  was  a  soldier  in  the  Civil  War  and  afterwards  served  as  Govern 
ment  Indian  agent  in  New  Mexico.  He  rendered  important  service  in  making 
treaties  with  the  tribes  of  that  region. 


300    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

tion  of  discovery  led  to  his  being  called  "  the  Pathfinder," 
and  he  became  almost  as  well  known  in  Europe  as  in  America. 
A  third  time  he  was  sent  out,  in  1845,  and,  crossing  Kansas, 
Colorado,  and  Utah,  spent  the  winter  in  the  mountains  of 
northern  California.1 

289.  California  rises  in  revolt.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
California  was  still  owned  by  Mexico,  a  few  Americans 
had  found  their  way  thither  as  early  as  1838.  They  settled 
chiefly  around  San  Francisco  Bay,  although  several  of  them 
were  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  When  these  men  heard  of 
the  Mexican  War,  they  feared  that  the  Mexican  soldiers 
who  were  then  stationed  in  California  would  attack  them. 
They  therefore  hastily  formed  a  little  republic  of  their  own, 
in  1846,  which  came  to  be  known  as  the  "  Bear  State,"  be 
cause  its  flag  bore  the  picture  of  a  grizzly  bear.2  Messen 
gers  were  hurriedly  sent  to  seek  Fremont,  who  was  camp 
ing  in  that  vicinity,  and  ask  his  assistance.  He  accordingly 
returned  to  the  Sacramento  Valley  with  his  strongly  armed 
exploring  party.  After  several  skirmishes  with  the  Mexi 
cans,  the  Americans  gained  control  of  the  country  and 
elected  Fremont  governor.  He  was  fortunate  in  being  soon 
reinforced  by  Commodore  Robert  Stockton,  of  the  navy, 
who  had  been  patrolling  the  coast  in  his  frigate.3 

1  Before  Fremont's  expeditions  nearly  all  Americans  believed  that  the  broad 
plains  east  of  the  Rockies  (the  present  States  of  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Arkansas, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming)  were  a  vast  desert,  much  like  the 
famous  sandy  wastes  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  explorer  Pike,  who  visited  that 
region  in  1806,  was  largely  responsible  for  this  incorrect  notion;  for  in  his  report 
to  the  Federal  Government  he  said  that  these  fine  grazing  plains  were  "a  des 
ert  placed  by  Providence  to  keep  the  American  people  from  a  thin  diffusion  and 
ruin."  By  this  he  probably  meant  that  had  the  plains  been  a  fertile  region  our 
people  would  have  thinly  settled  them,  and  then  the  Indians  would  in  time  have 
attacked  and  ruined  such  settlements;  whereas,  if  Americans  were  forced  to 
remain  eastward  of  the  plains,  they  would  settle  the  Eastern  country  thickly 
and  grow  up  to  be  a  strong  nation.  In  the  American  school  geographies  before 
1850,  the  plains  were  called  "The  Great  American  Desert."  Much  of  this 
"desert,"  however,  is  now  artificially  irrigated,  and  populated  by  millions  of 
prosperous  Americans. 

The  flag,  like  that  of  Texas,  bore  but  one  star.  It  had  also  the  figure  of  a 
grizzly  bear,  and  the  words  "California  Republic."  The  grizzly  was  chosen  as 
the  new  State's  emblem,  because  it  was  common  in  the  Rockies  and  represented 
"strength  and  unyielding  resistance." 

*  Early  in  1847  Colonel  Stephen  W.  Kearny,  of  the  army,  arrived  and  took 


THE  GADSDEN   PURCHASE  301 

290.  Land  acquired  by  us  from  Mexico.  Thus,  by  means 
of  the  Mexican  War  and  the  adventurous  migration  of 
American  pioneers  westward,  the  United  States  had  come 
into  possession  of  a  large  part  of  the  territory  owned  by  the 
Mexicans.  In  February,  1848,  the  two  nations  signed  a  treaty 
by  which  Mexico  was  paid  $15,000,000  for  such  of  her  lands 
as  lay  north  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Gila  Rivers,  which  was  all 
that  the  United  States  cared  to  keep.  Besides  that,  we  paid 
certain  claims  held  against  Mexico,  amounting  to  $3, 250,000 
more.  This  added  to  our  national  domain  529,189  square 
miles,  from  which  have  been  carved  the  States  of  California, 
Nevada,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona;  and  which  in 
cluded  also  portions  of  the  present  Colorado  and  Wyoming.1 

When  the  surveyors  came  to  mark  the  line  between  the 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Gila  Rivers,  some  further  disputes 
arose  as  to  the  proper  boundary  between  the  two  nations. 
The  matter  was  satisfactorily  arranged  in  1853,  when  we 
further  purchased  from  Mexico  a  tract  of  29,671  square 
miles  in  the  southern  parts  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  for 
which  we  paid  $10,000,000.  This  transaction  was  arranged 
by  James  Gadsden,  our  minister  to  Mexico,  and  for  that 
reason  it  is  called  the  "  Gadsden  Purchase."  2 

charge  of  American  affairs.  He  had  taken  possession  of  New  Mexico  the  pre 
ceding  summer,  and  reached  California  by  way  of  an  old  trail  made  by  Span 
ish  traders  and  American  hunters  across  the  wide  stretch  of  plains,  desert,  and 
mountains  lying  between  Santa  Fe  and  Los  Angeles. 

1  In  1846,  while  Congress  was  considering  a  bill  to  pay  Mexico  for  the  terri 
tory  that  was  about  to  be  taken  from  her,  Congressman  Wilmot,  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  offered  an  amendment  which  has  ever  since  been  called  "the  Wilmot 
Proviso."     This  declared  that  the  money  should  be  paid  to  Mexico,  provided 
slavery  was  forever  prohibited  in  all  territory  that  might   be  acquired  from 
her  —  she  having  freed  her  own  slaves  in  1827.    The  House  of  Representatives 
adopted  the  Proviso,  but  the  Senate  rejected  it;  so  it  failed.  Senator  Calhoun's 
objection  was  that  it  prevented  an  American  citizen  from  carrying  his  property 
wherever  he  wished,  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States.   Although  the 
Wilmot  Proviso  was  not  adopted,  it  soon  grew  into  a  question  of  great  import 
ance  in  the  dispute  between  North  and  South  over  the  question  of  extending 
the  area  open  to  slavery. 

2  With  the  $18,250,000  paid  for  the  Mexican  Purchase  of  1848,  the  $10,000,- 
ooo  expended  for  the  Gadsden  Purchase  in  1853,  and  the  $7,500,000  Texas 
debt  which  we  had  assumed  in  1845,  the  total  cost  of  Mexican  territory  acquired 
by  us  was  $35,750,000.    In  those  days  most  people  thought  this  an  outrageous 
price.  The  total  area,  however,  was  over  eleven  times  the  size  of  New  York 
State,  and  almost  two  thirds  that  of  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the 
Revolution.    The  cost  to  us  was  about  ten  cents  per  acre. 


302     THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

291.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California.  Nine  days  be 
fore  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States,  in  February,  1848,  a  startling  event  occurred 
at  Fort  Sutter,  in  far-off  California.  This  fort  protected 
from  marauding  Indians  and  Mexicans  several  thousand 
acres  of  land  in  Sacramento  Valley,  which  its  wealthy 
owner,  Captain  John  A.  Sutter,  a  Swiss  pioneer,  used  chiefly 
as  pasturage  for  sheep  and  cattle. 

One  day,  while  some  of  Sutter's  men  were  building  a 

water-power  sawmill  on  one  of  his  streams,  they  discovered 

some  shining  particles  of 

GOLD  MINE  FOUND.  -  in  the  newly    metal  that  looked  like  gold. 

made   raceway  of  the  Saw   Mill   recently  These  were    taken    to    the 

erected  by  Captain  Sutter,  on  the  Ameri-  American  garrison  at  Mon- 

can  Fork,  gold  has  been  found  in  consider-  terey,    where    the    officers 

able  quantities.     One  person  brought  thirty  ^    ^    finders    ^^.    ^ 
dollars  worth  to  New  Helvetia,  gathered  ,  , 

there  in  a  short  time.    California,  no  doubt,  metal    really  was    what    it 

is  rich  in  mineral   wealth;  great   chances  Seemed     to     be,    and    that 

here  for  scientific  capitalists.    Gold  has    there  must  be  a  great  deal 

been  found  in  almost   every   part  of  the     of  ft  in  the  neighborhood 

country-  l         from  which  the  specimens 

came.    It  proved  to  be  the 

first  important  gold  discovery  in  the  history  of   North 
America. 

It  was  an  unlucky  "  find,"  however,  for  poor  Captain 
Sutter.  His  land  was  soon  overrun  by  gold-seekers,  many  of 
them  rude,  lawless  fellows,  who  hurried  thither  from  every 
settlement  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Soldiers  deserted 
from  the  American  garrisons  then  in  California,  sailors  ran 
away  as  soon  as  their  ships  came  to  anchor,  trades  were 
stopped,  all  business  was  at  a  standstill,  towns  were  left 
almost  empty.  Even  Sutter's  men  threw  down  their  tools  and 
joined  the  throng  of  "  prospectors,"  who,  without  stopping 
to  ask  permission,  dug  great  pits  into  almost  every  acre 

1  The  first  newspaper  notice  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California.  From  the 
San  Francisco  Calif ornian,  March  5,  1848.  An  equal  amount  of  space  was 
given  to  a  horse-race,  so  little  did  even  the  people  of  California  at  first  realize 
the  importance  of  the  discovery. 


DISCOVERY  OF  GOLD   IN   CALIFORNIA          303 

he  owned,  and  made  the  land  worthless  for  a  ranch.  The 
throng  of  adventurers  stole  the  Captain's  cattle,  horses, 
lumber  and  supplies,  used  his  streams  for  washing  out  their 
gold,  and  in  every  way  wickedly  disregarded  his  rights. 

The  discovery  became  known  in  our  Eastern  States  by 
the  summer  of  1848  and  aroused  tremendous  excitement. 
Early  the  following  year  thousands  of  men,  and  with 


Contemporary  cartoon,  in  the  Library  of  Congress 

"HOW  THEY  GO  TO  CALIFORNIA" 

Flying  machines  and  dirigible  balloons  were  facetiously  suggested  to  the  impatient  gold-seekers  as 

means  of  conveyance 

them  hundreds  of  women  and  children  also,  from  Europe 
as  well  as  from  our  own  land,  all  feverishly  eager  to  win 
riches  quickly,  started  for  the  gold-fields  of  California. 
Many  went  on  sailing-craft  and  steamers,  by  way  of  Cape 
Horn,  or  by  the  quicker  route  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,1 

1  Steamers  went  from  New  York  to  the  Isthmus,  and  there  disembarked  their 
passengers,  who  traveled  across  to  Panama  on  muleback,  and  there  took  other 
steamers  that  carried  them  to  San  Francisco.  The  express  company  doing 
business  over  this  line  charged  three  dollars  for  sending  a  small  daguerreotype 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  and  twelve  dollars  for  a  parcel  the  size  of  this 
history ;  larger  packages  cost  seventy-five  cents  a  pound.  A  railway  across  the 
Isthmus  was  completed  in  1855. 


304    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

where  large  numbers  caught  deadly  fevers.  But  most  of  the 
gold-seekers  joined  caravans  of  prairie  schooners  and  rode 
or  trudged  westward  along  the  Overland  California  Trail.1 
Upon  that  long  and  dusty  wagon  track,  months  of  toil  and 
danger  were  passed  before  the  far-distant  goal  could  be 
reached.  To  add  to  the  horrors  of  mountain  storms,  swollen 
rivers,  Indian  attacks,  thirst,  and  starvation,  an  epidemic 
of  cholera  attacked  the  miserable  travelers.  Like  the  Ore 
gon  Trail,  the  weary  road  to  California  was  plainly  marked 
by  the  bleaching  skeletons  of  animals  and  the  graves  of  men, 
women,  and  children.2 

Many  faint-hearted  ones  turned  back,  discouraged  at 
the  appalling  difficulties  of  traveling  under  such  conditions; 
nevertheless,  eighty  thousand  persons  from  the  East  ar 
rived  that  autumn  either  by  land  or  sea,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Sacramento  and  the  neighborhood  of  San  Francisco  Bay.3 
Mining-camps  sprang  up  in  every  direction.  But  some  of 
the  newcomers  were  wise  enough  to  remain  in  the  settle 
ments,  which  were  now  rapidly  being  formed,  for  in  the  long 
run  they  who  sell  food,  tools,  and  supplies  to  a  mining-camp 
are  apt  to  win  more  profit  than  those  who  are  doing  the  dig 
ging. 

With  each  succeeding  year  the  throng  increased.4    Soon 

1  The  Oregon  Trail  was  followed  as  far  as  the  South  Pass,  which  Fremont  had 
Explored.    Travelers  for  California  then  branched  off   to  the  southwest  and 
ctirrrbe^Loyer  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  until  at  last  they  descended  to  the 
head  of  SaiTFrancisco  Bay. 

2  By  May  1 8,  1849,  there  had  crossed  the  Missouri  River  alone,  at  points 
between  Independence,  Missouri,  and  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  over  4000  wyagons, 
38,000  oxen  and  mules,  and  18,000  persons,  all  bound  for  California.  Fully 
100,000  persons  crossed  that  river  in  each  of  the  years  1850,  1851,  and  1852, 
going  westward  on  the  same  journey. 

3  In  after  years  these  pioneers  were  called  "forty-niners,"  because  they  went 
out  to  California  in  1849.  An  old  and  popular  California  song  has  this  refrain:  — 

"  T  was  in  the  days  of  old, 
In  the  days  of  gold, 
In  the  days  of  forty-nine." 

4  Ferries,  trading-posts,  forts,  and  a  monthly  mail  service  were  soon  estab 
lished  on  the  California  Trail.   In  1858  there  was  opened  a  passenger  stage-line 
between  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco,  by  way  of  El  Paso  and  Fort  Yuma  (a  dis 
tance  of  2759  miles),  with  heavily  built  and  gayly  painted  "Concord  Coaches  " 
drawn  by  galloping  mules,  that  made  the  journey  in  from  three  to  four  weeks. 
There  was  weekly  mail  service  over  this  line.  A  still  more  rapid  ' '  pony  express ' ' 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT     305 

San  Francisco  grew  into  a  city  of  20,000  people,  represent 
ing  almost  every  race  and  language,  and  at  her  wharves 
lay  ships  from  every  civilized  land.  By  this  time,  Califor 
nia  had  become  one  of  the  best 
known  regions  in  the  world. 

As  usual  in  new  mining-camps 
there  was  at  first  much  lawless- 
ness,  and  life  and  property  were 
not  safe.  There  were  virtually 
no  policemen,  and  the  courts 
were  not  able  to  enforce  tha 
laws.  A  "vigilance  commit- 
tee ' '  was  therefore  organized  by  A  PONY  EXPRESS 

the  best  citizens  for  the  severe 

punishment  of  all  evil-doers,  and  in  this  manner  order  was 
gradually  restored.1  Few  of  the  settlers  found  in  Cali 
fornia  the  great  wealth  they  had  expected,2  but  they  did 
succeed  in  building  up  a  great  and  prosperous  State,  which 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1850. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Draw  a  map  indicating  the  growth  of  the  United  States  since  1789, 
and  enlarge  it,  as  you  continue  the  study  of  this  book.  Give  date  of  the 
acquisition  of  new  territory  and  state  how  it  was  obtained.  Appendix 
E  and  the  map  at  pages  392-393  may  be  consulted. 

2.  Locate  the  Oregon  country.   Which  nation  had  the  greater  right  to  it?' 
Why? 

3.  Had  you  lived  in  1846,  would  you  have  been  for  or  against  the  war 
with  Mexico?   Why? 

was  begun  in  1860.  Light-weight  boys  and  men  rode  fast  horses,  and  carried 
the  mail  and  small  packages  from  California  to  Missouri,  byway  of  Salt  Lake 
City,  in  eight  days.  It  cost  five  dollars  to  send  a  letter  between  California  and 
the  Eastern  States  by  this  pony  express.  One  of  the  riders  was  William  F 
Cody,  afterwards  known  as  "  Buffalo  Bill."  This  system  ceased  in  the  autumn 
of  1 86 1  when  the  overland  telegraph  reached  California. 

1  The  vigilance  committees  or  "vigilantes"  met  in  secret,  and  acted  both 
as  judge  and  jury.    Many  of  the  offenders  were  hanged,  and  others  were  or 
dered  to  leave  California. 

2  It  is  estimated  that  between  1849  and  1856  nearly  $500,000,000  worth  of 
gold  was  taken  from  California.    But  it  has  also  been  estimated  that  the  labor 
expended  in  getting  this  (including,  of  course,  the  labor  of  the  gold-seekers 
who  failed  to  get  any);  represented  several  times  that  value. 


306  THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

4.  Account  for  the  fact  that  the  United  States  had  war  with  Mexico 
rather  than  with  England,  over  boundary  disputes. 

5.  Indicate  on  the  map  the  several  explorations  of  the  "Pathfinder." 

6.  Contrast  the  speed  and  comfort  of  travel  in  1849  with  that  of  to-day. 

7.  From  the  Index  find  what  other  important  discoveries  of  gold  have 
taken  place  in  our  history. 

8.  Show  how  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  had  a  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  Western  country. 

9.  Review  the  successive  expansions  of  our  territory.   (See  "  Expansion  " 
in  the  Index.) 

10.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Describe  a  meeting  of  the  American  settlers  in  Oregon  at  which  they 
discuss  their  difficulties  and  resolve  upon  action.  This  may  be  drama 
tized. 

2.  Place,  a  New  England  home;  time,  1849.    The  news  of  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  California  has  been  received.   Two  sons  decide  to  start  for 
California.    Describe  the  scene.    Dramatize. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  lived  in  a  cabin  on  the  Overland  California  Trail. 
Write  a  letter  describing  the  scene  from  your  doorstep  in  1849. 

4.  Imagine  that  your  father  established  a  store  in  California  in  1849.    In 
telling  how  he  prospered,  weave  in  some  of  the  life  of  that  period. 


CHAPTER   XXX 

CONTRASTING    CONDITIONS    IN   NORTH   AND    SOUTH!    THE 
COMPROMISE    OF    1850:    THE    FUGITIVE    SLAVE    LAW 

1849-1853 

292.  The  North  prosperous.  The  North  had  prospered 
greatly.    Her  factories  and  mines  had  multiplied ;  her  cities 
had  grown  with  almost  mushroom  speed;  her  commerce 
had  developed  enormously  both  at  home  and  with  Europe 
and  Asia.     Immigrants  from  Europe  continued  to  settle 
throughout  all  the  Northern  States  and  to  increase  the 
population  of  this   section.    Colleges,  academies,   schools, 
and  churches  could  everywhere  be  seen  throughout  this 
wealthy  and  rapidly  growing  portion  of  the  Union. 

293.  The  South  backward,  because  of  slavery.  But  since 
the  Revolution  the  South  had  unfortunately  made  com 
paratively  little  progress  in  wealth  and  population.    This 
was  due  chiefly  to  slavery,  which  was  injurious  in  several 
ways :  - 

(a)  Few  European  immigrants  went  into  the  South. 
These  newcomers  were  usually  poor,  and  must  wwk  for 
their  living.  But  a  Southern  planter  would  not  pay  for  the 
labor  of  a  white  man  when  he  could  get  the  labor  of  a  slave 
for  the  cost  of  the  latter's  bread  and  clothes,  and  the  in 
terest  on  the  value  of  the  slave  in  money;  he  could  also 
own  the  children  of  the  slave.1  Thus  the  free  white  work 
man  could  not  compete  with  the  enslaved  black.  Moreover, 

1  In  1850  there  were  3,200,000  slaves  in  the  South,  owned  by  347,000  persons. 
But  most  of  these  owners  had  no  more  than  one  or  two  each;  a  large  majority 
of  the  slaves  were  held  by  men  who  had  fifty  or  more  of  them  —  there  were  two 
men,  for  example,  who  owned  over  a  thousand  each. 

At  the  same  time  there  were  about  2,500,000  "poor  whites."  The  rich  slave 
holders  having  bought  up  all  the  best  lands,  these  unfortunate  people  had  to 
content  themselves  with  farming  poor,  worn-out  tracts,  from  which  they  were 
never  able  to  get  more  than  a  bare  living. 


308    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

the  slaveholders  did  not  care  to  have  wage-earners  in  their 
neighborhood,  for  fear  that  the  slaves  might  be  discontented 
when  they  saw  laborers  who  could  save  money  and  buy  their 
own  homes.  The  immigrants  therefore  went  to  the  North 
and  West,  and  helped  to  build  up  those  sections.  Without 
immigration,  the  South  could  not  make  much  growth  in 
white  population,  and  thus  she  was  doomed  to  a  minority 
representation  in  Congress. 

(b)  The  Southern  planter  supposed  in  those  days  that  he 
could  make  a  profit  only  when  he  cultivated  one  or  two  large 
crops  that  required  little  skill  and  on  which  his  ignorant  and 
unwilling  slaves  could  be  worked  in  gangs,  under  overseers. 
Therefore  he  planted  tobacco,  cotton,  or  rice,  and  scarcely 
anything  else.   But  in  so  doing  he  rapidly  exhausted  the  soil 
by  planting  it  over  and  over  again  to  the  same  crops,  and  he 
needed  frequently  to  seek  fresh  land  for  planting.   This  was 
one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  his  eagerness  to  extend  slavery 
into  the  West  and  Southwest.    In  our  own  day,  under  free 
dom,  the  Southern  planter  has  learned  that  diversified  crops, 
that  do  not  greatly  exhaust  the  soil,  are  also  profitable  in  his 
region. 

(c)  The  slaves  had  no  object  in  working  when  the  over 
seer's  back  was  turned,  so  that  it  often  took  two  or  three  of 
them  to  do  as  much  as  one  enterprising  free  white  laborer 
could  do  in  the  same  time.   Thus  the  owning  of  slaves  was 
not  as  profitable  as  it  seemed.    Moreover,  many  masters 
did  little  but  enjoy  themselves,  leaving  their  overseers  to 
manage  the  plantations  —  which  is  usually  an  unprofitable 
method  in  farming. 

(d)  The  unskilled  labor  of  the  slaves  was  not  satisfactory 
in  mills  or  mines,  where  the  operators  need  to  have  con 
siderable  intelligence.     Whites  might  have  been  used  in 
such  places,  thus  leaving  the  blacks  to  work  in  the  fields, 
but  we  have  seen  that  it  was  not  thought  best  to  have  free 
laborers  in  the  same  neighborhood  with  slaves.   The  South, 
therefore,  had  few  factories  and  paid  little  attention  to  her 
abundant  mines  of  iron  and  coal.  She  was  dependent  on  the 


SLAVERY  AGAINST  FREEDOM  309 

North  for  most  of  her  tools,  clothing,  and  other  goods,  and 
on  the  West  for  much  of  her  food.  Thus  little  benefit  had 
come  to  her  from  the  many  great  inventions  and  discoveries 
that  enriched  and  strengthened  the  rest  of  the  country. 

294.  Slavery  against  freedom.  Most  of  the  intelligent 
Northerners  believed  that  the  system  of  slave  labor  was 
ruining  both  whites  and  negroes  in  the  South.  For  this 
reason  they  wanted  the  West  to  be  made  free  territory,  in 
which  slavery  should  be  forbidden.  They  believed  that  if 
the  laws  were  rightly  interpreted,  every  slave  would  be  a 
free  man  the  moment  his  master  carried  him  over  the 
border  into  a  free  State. 

But  the  Southerners  honestly  believed  that  slavery  was  a 
most  excellent  institution,  quite  as  good  for  the  blacks  as  for 
the  whites.1  They  wanted  to  take  their  slaves  with  them, 
like  other  property,  when  they  moved  to  the  new  lands  of 
the  West.  They  feared  that  if  the  North  were  once  able  to 
prevent  this,  through  having  a  majority  in  Congress,  it 
would  next  be  proposing  laws  to  abolish  slavery  altogether. 
This,  they  believed,  would  mean  the  ruin  of  the  South,  for 
her  wealthy  class  had  a  very  large  amount  of  money  in 
vested  in  slaves.2 

It  was,  therefore,  of  great  importance  to  the  South  that, 
when  new  States  came  to  be  formed  from  the  vast  stretch 
of  lands  recently  acquired  from  Mexico,  as  many  as  possible 
of  these  should  be  made  slave  States,  that  would  send  to 
Congress  men  pledged  to  vote  against  any  proposal  to 
abolish  slavery.  On  its  part  the  North  was  just  as  deter- 

1  They  pointed  out  that  in  Africa  the  negro  was  a  savage,  yet  that  in 
America,  during  two  centuries  as  a  slave,  he  had  been  developed  into  a  civil 
ized  being  —  although  still  far  behind  the  white  man.  They  said,  and  this  was 
quite  true,  that  those  negroes  who  had  been  reared  as  house  servants  were, 
as  a  rule,  well  cared  for  and  had  a  deep  affection  for  their  master's  family;  and 
that  crime  was  little  known  among  them.   The  field-hands,  who  did  the  hard 
labor,  were,  no  doubt,  under  some  masters,  badly  treated;  but  Southerners 
asked  whether,  if  free,  getting  wages,  and  shifting  for  themselves,  the  negroes 
would  be  better  off  than  in  slavery,  or  be  better  laborers. 

2  The  South  did  not  realize  how  great  a  burden  slavery  was,  for  she  had  never 


known  any  other  system  of  labor.   She  feared  that  were  the  negroes  freed,  not 

great  loss,  but  that  there  would 
willing  to  take  the  places  of  the  blacks,  and  plant  and  gather  the  crops. 


, 
only  would  their  owners  suffer  a  great  loss,  but  that  there  would  be  no  laborers 


310    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

mined  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  proposed  new  States 
should  be  free. 

295.  Election  of  Taylor  and  Fillmore.  In  the  presidential 
election  of  1848  the  Whigs  elected  their  candidates  —  for 
President,  General  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana,  an  army 
officer  who  had  been  prominent  in  the  Mexican  War;  for 
Vice-President,    Millard    Fillmore,    a    New   York   lawyer. 
Taylor  was  inaugurated  in  March,  I84Q.1 

296.  Threats  of  breaking  up  the  Union.  There  were  now 
fifteen  States  in  the  Union  where  no  human  being  could  be 
born  into  slavery,2  and  an  equal  number  in  which  slavery 
was  permitted.   This  made  the  Federal  Senate,  where  each 
State  has  two  votes,  evenly  divided  on  the  slavery  question; 
but  in  the  House  of  Representatives  the  North  had  a  ma 
jority,  because  of  its  larger  population. 

California  was  now  applying  for  admission,  and,  having 
been  settled  chiefly  by  Northern  men,  wanted  to  come  in 
as  a  free  State.  But  if  she  were  allowed  to  enter  the  Union 
there  would  then  be  sixteen  free  as  against  fifteen  slave 
States,  which  in  the  Senate  would  mean  a  majority  for  the 
North,  and  to  this  proposal  the  Southern  Congressmen 
quite  naturally  would  not  agree.3 

The  feeling  over  this  matter  became  very  strong,  and  the 
men  of  each  section  uttered  many  threats  as  to  what  they 
would  do.  For  a  time  there  was  fear  that  the  United  States 
might  have  to  break  up  into  two  republics  —  one  in  the 

1  General  Taylor  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1784.  When  he  was  a  year  old,  his 
father  moved  to  a  Kentucky  farm,  on  which  Zachary  was  reared.    Becoming 
a  soldier,  he  served  with  great  credit  through  the  War  of  1812  and  the  Mexican 
War,  and  after  the  latter  retired  to  his  plantation  in  Louisiana. 

2  Florida  and  Texas  were  admitted  as  slave  States  in  1845.  To  balance  them, 
Iowa  entered  in  1846  and  Wisconsin  in  1848  —  both  of  them  free.   This  made 
the  list  of  States  as  follows:  — 

Free  States:  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa. 

Slave  States:  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Missouri, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky. 

3  They  were  willing,  however,  that  California  should  be  divided  in  the  middle, 
the  southern  half  to  be  a  slave  State  and  the  northern  free. 


THE   COMPROMISE  OF   1850  311 

South  composed  of  States  in  which  slavery  was  lawful; 
the  other  in  the  North,  consisting  of  free  States.  It  was  said 
that  the  two  rival  nations  might  then  divide  the  new  West 
ern  territory  between  them,  in  such  manner  as  they  could 
agree  upon.  Patriotic  men  who  loved  the  Union  were  much 
alarmed  over  the  serious  situation  into  which  our  country 
had  been  brought  by  the  quarrel  in  regard  to  slavery. 


SACRAMENTO  ABOUT  1850 


from  an  old  lithograph 


297.  The  Compromise  of  1850.  Affairs  were  in  this  peril 
ous  condition  when  the  great  statesman  Henry  Clay  — 
who  had  been  called  "  the  Great  Pacificator,"  because  on 
several  important  occasions  he  tried  to  prevent  trouble 
between  the  two  sections  *  —  proposed  to  Congress  what  is 
known  as  the  Compromise  of  1850.  This  consisted  of  several 
bills  that  made  the  following  concessions  to  both  the  North 
and  the  South :  — 

(a)  To  please  the  North,  Clay  proposed  to  admit  Cali 
fornia  as  a  free  State. 

1  In  1820  he  helped  to  secure  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In  1833  he  was 
prominent  in  the  compromise  that  settled  the  nullification  difficulty  with 
South  Carolina. 


312    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

(b)  Also  to  please  the  North,  he  sought  to  make  it  unlaw 
ful  hereafter  to  buy  or  sell  slaves  in  the  District  of  Columbia; 
this  did  not  prohibit  slavery  in  the  District  —  only  the 
slave  trade. 

(c)  To  please  the  South,  he  asked  that  Federal  officials 
be  given  authority  to  hunt  for  slaves  that  had  escaped  into 
the  North,  and,  without  any  trial  by  jury,  to  return  them 
to  their  masters.  This  was  called  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.1 

(d)  He  proposed  to  allow  the  formation  of  the  Territories 
of  New  Mexico  and  Utah.    Their  settlers  were  to  be  given 
the  right  to  decide,  when  the  time  came  for  the  two  Terri 
tories  to  be  admitted  to  statehood,  whether  they  should 
come  into  the  Union  as  slave  or  as  free  States.2 

The  proposed  compromise  at  once  aroused  an  angry  dis 
cussion,  not  only  in  Congress,3  but  everywhere  that  Ameri 
can  citizens  met  —  on  the  streets,  in  social  gatherings,  hotels, 
restaurants,  and  markets,  and  on  canal-boats,  railway 
trains,  and  steamers.  In  every  city,  village,  or  town  in  the 
land,  it  was  the  chief  topic  of  daily  conversation. 

The  clause  that  most  angered  the  North  was  the  one  allow 
ing  the  return  of  fugitive  slaves.  Daniel  Webster  tried  to 
amend  the  bill  so  as  to  secure  a  jury  trial  for  the  runaways 
before  they  should  be  given  up;  but  when  he  failed  in  this 
he  spoke  earnestly  in  favor  of  Clay's  entire  plan.  He  said 

„ 

1  This  act  provided:  — 

(a)  When  any  white  person  claimed  a  runaway  slave  as  his,  or  her,  slave, 
Federal  commissioners  were  promptly  to  capture  the  runaway  and  hand  him 
(or  her)  over  to  the  one  making  such  claim. 

(6)  The  commissioners  were  given  authority  to  call  on  all  citizens  to  help 
them  make  such  captures. 

(c)  Any  one  refusing  to  help,  or  who  in  any  other  way  assisted  the  negro  to 
escape,  was  to  be  severely  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

(d)  The  negro's  own  testimony  as  to  whether  or  not  he  was  the  claimant's 
slave  was  to  be  of  no  value  whatever. 

2  But  this  proposal  to  leave  the  question  to  the  settlers  was  a  violation  of 
one  of  the  provisions  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  (1820)  by  which  Congress 
had    forever   prohibited   slavery  north  of   latitude  36°  30'  in    the   Louisiana 
Purchase. 

3  The  debate  in  the  Senate  was  long  and  brilliant.    Clay  urged  compromise 
between  the  North  and  the  South;  but  Calhoun  stood  firm  for  what  he  thought 
to  be  the  rights  of  Southerners,  to  carry  their  property  to  any  part  of  the  United 
States. 


THE  FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW  313 

that  it  was  the  only  method  to  keep  peace  between  the  two 
sections,  and  to  break  up  the  Union  would  be  a  greater  crime 
than  slavery  itself.  Other  Northerners,  who  would  yield 
nothing  to  the  slaveholders,  bitterly  reviled  him  for  acting 
as  he  did. 

298.  Fillmore  becomes  President.  The  excitement  was 
at   its   height,  when,   in   the  summer  of   1850,   President 
Taylor  died,  and  Vice- President  Fillmore l  succeeded  him  at 
the  White  House. 

299.  The  Fugitive  Slave  Law.    During  the  next  autumn 
Congress  passed  all  of  the  various  laws  which  Clay  proposed 
in  his  compromise.  And  now  nearly  every  one  on  both  sides 
of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line  was  for  a  time  happy  in  the 
belief  that  there  would  be  no  further  talk  of  breaking  up  the 
Union.   But  fresh  trouble  soon  arose,  for  the  harsh  methods 
used  in  enforcing  the  new  Fugitive  Slave  Law  aroused  in 
tense  indignation  among  Northern  people. 

During  the  thirty  or  more  years  preceding  the  enactment 
of  the  law,  a  great  many  negroes  had  escaped  from  bondage 
in  the  South  and  were  living  peaceably  as  freemen  in  the 
North.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  law  went  into  effect,  num 
bers  of  men  who  charged  large  prices  for  catching  runaway 
slaves  came  into  the  North,  eagerly  searching  for  refugees. 
In  hundreds  of  cases  they  were  successful;  but  now  and 
then  they  met  with  serious  resistance.  Mobs  of  white  men 
and  negroes  would  sometimes  snatch  from  them  their  poor 
victims,  and  violently  drive  the  captors  out  of  the  State.2 

300.  The  Underground  Railroad*   Thousands  of  negroes 

1  Fillmore  was  a  native  of  New  York  State  (born  in  1800),  and  died  there  in 
1 872.  He  was  trained  as  a  lawyer,  and  before  his  election  to  the  vice-presidency 
had  been  prominent  in  Congress. 

2  Several  Northern  States  passed  personal  liberty  laws,  making  it  unlawful 
for  their  citizens  to  assist  in  the  capture  and  return  of  slaves.    Officers  were 
instructed  (to  quote  the  words  of  the  Wisconsin  Act)  "to  use  all  lawful  means 
to  protect,  defend,  and  procure  to  be  discharged  every  person  arrested  or  claimed 
as  a  fugitive  slave."  This  action  was,  of  course,  a  defiance  of  the  Federal  law, 
and  the  effect  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  nullification  act  of  South  Carolina, 
years  before.    But  Northerners  said  that  there  was  a  "higher  law"  than  any 
act  of  Congress,  and  that  was  the  Golden  Rule,  bidding  men  to  do  unto  all 
human  beings  as  they  would  be  done  by. 


314    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

on  Southern  plantations  had  now  become  eager  for  free 
dom.  In  spite  of  the  slave-catchers  and  the  enforcement 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  they  escaped  to  the  North  in 
larger  numbers  than  ever.  Northern  Abolitionists  so  strongly 
sympathized  with  these  unfortunate  people  that  they  or 
ganized  among  themselves  a  well-arranged  method  for  aiding 
the  flight  of  the  fugitives.  If  the  escaping  slave  could  but 


From  Siebert's  Undtryround  Railroad.    Copyright,  1898,  by  the  Macmillan  Co. 

THE    UNDERGROUND    RAILROAD 
Fugitive  slaves  arriving  at  a  "  station ''  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

once  cross  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line  and  reach  the  house 
of  an  Abolitionist,  he  v*;ould  be  secure/y  hidden  until  the 
search  for  him  had  quieted  down;  then,  in  the  dead  of  night, 
he  was  sent  still  farther  North,  to  the  care  of  some  other 
sympathizer,  until  by  degrees  he  at  last  reached  the  inter 
national  border  and  was  escorted  into  Canada,  where  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  had  no  effect  and  all  men  were  free. 
This  system  of  secretly  helping  slaves  to  reach  Canada  was 
popularly  known  as  the  "  Underground  Railroad."  l 

1  Each  hiding  place  was  called  a  "station";  the  friendly  Abolitionist  who 
owned  it  was  a  "station- keeper."  The  manner  in  which  the  "railroad"  worked 
is  described  in  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  and  in  Elson's  Sidelights  to  American  History. 


THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT    315 

301.  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  In  the  midst  of  the  great 
discussion  over  slavery,  there  appeared  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe's  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  In  the  form  of  a  very  read 
able  tale  of  life  among  the  blacks  on  a  Southern  planta 
tion,  Mrs.  Stowe  made  a  powerful  appeal  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  Her  book  very  greatly  exaggerated  the  worst 
side  of  slavery;  we  now  know  that  it  gives  its  readers  many 
false  ideas  about  the  South.  Nevertheless  it  was  at  once 
accepted  in  the  North  as  being  a  true  picture  of  plantation 
life,  and  was  eagerly  read  and  re-read  in  hundreds  of  thou 
sands  of  households.  From  this  time  forth  probably  most 
people  in  the  North  were  determined  that  human  bondage 
must  in  some  way  or  other  be  brought  to  an  end  in  the  United 
States.1 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  immigrants  select  the  North  for  settlement  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century?    Is  this  equally  true  to-day?   Give  reasons. 

2.  Explain  how  slave  labor  affected  the  public  opinion  of  the  South  toward 
manual  work? 

3.  Be  able  to  state  clearly  the  events  which  led  to  the  Compromise  of 
1850.   Of  what  other  famous  compromises  have  we  read? 

4.  What  do  you  think  of  the  fairness  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law?  Present 
both  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  point  of  view. 

5.  "Webster  stands  to-day  as  the  preeminent  champion  and  exponent  of 
nationality."   Explain. 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Describe  a  scene  in  a  Northern  village,  where  a  group  of  people  is  dis 
cussing  the  Compromise  of  1850.    Perhaps  the  discussion  turns  upon 
the  action  of  Daniel  W'ebster.    Dramatize. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  Henry  Clay  in  which  you  praise  him  for  his  work  as 
a  statesman. 

1  John  C.  Calhoun  died  in  the  spring  of  1850.  Henry  Clay,  by  this  time 
an  old  and  broken-down  man,  died  in  Washington  on  June  29,  1852.  Daniel 
Webster  passed  away  on  the  following  October  24.  These  three  men  were 
the  last  of  the  great  statesmen  who  had  been  connected  with  the  beginning 
of  the  dispute  between  the  North  and  the  South  over  the  slavery  question. 
By  the  time  of  their  deaths  they  had  been  succeeded  in  Congress  by  younger 
men,  who  were  carrying  on  the  controversy  commenced  by  them.  Jefferson 
Davis,  of  Mississippi,  took  the  same  point  of  view  that  Calhoun  had  adopted; 
and  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  one  of  the  strongest  orators  this  country 
has  ever  known,  seemed  to  step  into  the  place  occupied  by  Webster. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  KANSAS:  OUR  FIRST  TREATY  WITH  JAPAN 

1853-1857 

302.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  President  Franklin 
Pierce,  who  was  the  nominee  of  the  Democrats,  became 
President  in  March,  I853.1  In  his  inaugural  address  he 
promised  that  the  Compromise  of  1850  should  be  strictly 
enforced.  But  in  a  few  months  the  old  quarrel  was  again 
being  waged  as  fiercely  as  ever.  In  January,  1 854,  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  one  of  the  United  States  Senators  from  Illinois, 
introduced  in  Congress  a  bill  to  create  two  new  Territories, 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  from  that  part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur 
chase  lying  west  of  Missouri  and  Iowa.  The  bill  provided 
that  the  people  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  to  decide 
whether  they  should  enter  the  Union  with  or  without  slav 
ery.  This  proposed  right  was  commonly  called  "  popular 
sovereignty  "or  " squatter  sovereignty."2 

This  was  a  violation  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  which 
provided  for  freedom  in  all  of  the  new  States  that  might 
be  formed  west  or  north  of  Missouri.3  But  Douglas  said 
that  the  Compromise  of  1850,  with  its  popular  sovereignty 
clause,  had  taken  the  place  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
His  proposition  aroused  a  storm  of  indignation  throughout 
the  North.  Whenever,  in  that  section,  he  appeared  in  pub 
lic,  he  was  hissed  and  hooted,  and  denounced  as  a  public 

1  Pierce  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1804,  and  died  in  that  State  in 
1869.    Like  most  of  his  predecessors  he  was  a  lawyer;  but  served  in  the  Mexican 
War  as  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 

2  "  Squatters  "  were  those  settlers  in  the  West  who  did  not  go  to  the  expense 
of  buying  their  land  from  the  Federal  Government,  under  the  "preemption  " 
laws,  but  simply  settled  on  it  without  leave.    If  undisturbed  for  a  certain  num 
ber  of  years  they  might  then  hold  it  as  their  own,  the  same  as  if  they  had  pre 
empted  it. 

3  That  is,  north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30'. 


THE   KANSAS-NEBRASKA   BILL  317 

enemy.  Rude  effigies  composed  of  men's  clothes  stuffed 
with  straw,  and  labeled  "  Douglas  the  Traitor,"  were  burned 
amid  the  cheers  and  groans  of  ex 
cited  crowds.  The  "  Little  Giant "  1 
himself  declared  that  he  might 
travel  between  Chicago  and  Wash-  / 
ington  and  have  his  path  lighted  [><*&i£J[ 

the  whole  way  by  the  blaze  of  these 
bonfires.  He  now  knew  that  he  had    ! 
seriously  blundered;  for  although    \ 
he  had  won  the  applause  of  the     \v 
South,  he  had  lost  the  esteem  of  his       X; ,, 
Northern  friends. 

After  a  long  and  bitter  fight  in        STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS 
Congress,    the   slaveholders   won, 

and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  became  a  law  on  May  30, 
1854.2  Throughout  the  North  church  bells  were  tolled 
on  that  day,  as  if  mourning  the  death  of  freedom.  In  the 
South  there  was  great  rejoicing.  The  result  was  announced 
to  the  people  of  Washington  by  the  booming  of  cannon. 
Two  of  the  leading  anti-slavery  Senators,  Salmon  P.  Chase, 
of  Ohio,  and  Charles  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  met  on  the 
steps  of  the  Capitol  and  listened  to  the  guns.  *  They  cele 
brate  a  present  victory,"  said  Chase,  "  but  the  echoes  they 
awake  will  never  rest  until  slavery  itself  shall  die." 

303.  The  struggle  for  Kansas.  The  Southerners  were 
willing  to  allow  Nebraska  to  become  a  free  State ;  but  they 
said  that  Kansas,  the  southernmost  of  the  two,  properly 
belonged  to  them.  The  anti-slavery  men,  however,  were 
determined  that  it  should  remain  free.  There  now  began 
a  desperate  and  often  bloody  struggle,  lasting  through  the 
next  summer,  autumn,  and  winter,  to  see  which  side  could 

1  Douglas  was  so  called  by  his  friends  because  of  his  short  stature  and  his 
great  ability  as  an  orator  and  statesman. 

2  Nebraska  and  Kansas  Territories  were  very  much  larger  than  the  present 
States  of  those  names.   The  two  extended  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  included  parts  of  what  are  now  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  South 
Dakota. 


3i8    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

pour  into  Kansas  the  largest  number  of  settlers,  before  the 
vote  should  be  taken  for  or  against  slavery.  In  March, 
1855,  there  was  an  election  for  members  of  the  Territorial 
Legislature,  and  in  this  the  slavery  men  won ;  although  the 
anti-slavery  people  claimed  that  they  had  been  cheated 
in  the  count  of  the  ballots,  and  really  had  twice  as  many 
voters  on  their  side.  This  legislature  passed  laws  not  only 
permitting  slavery  in  the  Territory,  but  providing  heavy 
penalties  for  aiding  slaves  to  escape,  or  even  for  saying  * 
anything  against  human  bondage.  Thereupon  the  anti- 
slavery  men  elected  a  rival  legislature  of  their  own,  which 
asked  Congress  to  admit  Kansas  as  a  free  State.  But  the 
President  declared  that  this  second  body  was  not  lawful; 
so  he  ordered  it  to  be  dispersed  by  Federal  soldiers. 

By  this  time  Kansas  was  in  a  condition  of  civil  war.  Each 
party  was  struggling  fiercely  to  gain  control  by  killing  or 
driving  out  the  other.  Gangs  of  lawless  men  marched  up 
and  down  the  country,  raiding  the  farms  and  villages  of  their 
opponents,  setting  fire  to  houses,  whipping  and  otherwise 
misusing  persons  whom  they  did  not  like,  and  now  and 
then  murdering  them.  The  region  was  everywhere,  and 
rightly,  known  as  "  Bleeding  Kansas."1  In  the  end,  however, 
when  the  power  of  the  slaveholders  was  broken,  the  wish 
of  a  large  majority  of  her  people  was  granted;  in  1861  she 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  free  State.2 

304.  Formation  of  the  Republican  party.  The  managers 
of  the  Whig  party  had  taken  a  neutral  position  in  regard  to 
slavery,  and  thus  had  pleased  neither  the  South  nor  the 
North.  Those  Whigs  who  opposed  slavery  now  joined  a  new 
political  organization,  formed  in  1854  and  calling  itself 

1  Charles  Sumner,  United  States  Senator  from  Massachusetts,  made  a  bitter 
speech  on  "the  crime  against  Kansas."   In  this  he  spoke  harshly  against  Sena 
tor  Butler  of  South  Carolina.   Congressman  Preston  Brooks,  a  relative  of  But 
ler,  savagely  attacked  Sumner,  as  the  latter  sat  at  his  desk  in  the  Senate,  and 
with  a  stout  walking-cane  rained  blow  after  blow  on  his  head.    Sumner's  in 
juries  were  very  severe.   The  incident  created  intense  excitement  in  the  North, 
and  Sumner's  assailant  and  his  friends  were  bitterly  denounced. 

2  Minnesota  had  been  admitted  in  1858  and  Oregon  in  1859,  both  of  them 
free  States. 


COMMODORE  PERRY  IN  JAPAN 


319 


"  Republican."  x  With  them  were  associated  many  North 
ern  Democrats,  who  were  dissatisfied  because  their  old 
political  leaders  were  friendly  toward  slavery.  The  Repub 
lican  party  was  enthusiastic  and  strong  enough  to  hold  a 
national  convention  in  1856  and  nominate  a  presidential 
ticket.2 

305.  Commodore  Perry  in  Japan.  Another  interesting 
event  in  Pierce's  Administration  was  the  visit  made  to 
Japan  in  March, 


AN  AMERICAN  CLIPPER   SHIP 

These  vessels  were  extensively  used  in  the  Californian,  Austra 
lian,  and  East  Indian  commerce  through  the  middle  of  the  nine 
teenth  century 


in 

1854,  by  Commo 
dore  Matthew  Cal- 
braith  Perry,  bro 
ther  of  the  hero  of 
the  Battle  of  Lake 
Erie,  with  a  fleet  of 
our  naval  vessels. 
Perry  entered  into 
a  friendly  commer 
cial  treaty  with  the 
Island  Empire, 

which    before    that 
time  had  refused  to 
have  anything  to  do 
with  the  nations  of  Europe  or  America.    Ever  since  Perry's 
visit  Japan  has  been  a  firm  friend  of  the  United  States.3 

1  The  churches  also  were  now  splitting  up  on  the  question  of  slavery.   The 
Baptists,  Methodists,  and  Presbyterians  divided  into  Northern  and  Southern 
branches  on  this  issue. 

2  Another  new  party  to  enter  this  presidential  election  was  that  of  the 
41  Know  Nothings,"  a  name  originating  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  secret  organize  - 
tion;  when  members  were  questioned  about  it,  they  said  they  "knew  nothing" 
about  the  matter.    These  men  were  afraid  that  European  immigrants  would 
soon  overrun  our  country  and  lord  it  over  native  Americans;  so  they  asked 
for  restrictions  on  naturalization,  and  laws  forbidding  the  foreign-born  to  hold 
office.   After  exhibiting  much  strength  for  several  years  their  party  went  to 
pieces. 

3  Another  event  of  importance  was  the  holding  in  New  York  City,  in  1853, 
of  a  World's  Fair.    In  a  great  building  made  of  glass  and  iron,  called  the 
Crystal  Palace,  exhibits  were  collected  from  every  leading  country  on  the  globe. 
It  served  to  show  the  Americans  that  in  all  kinds  of  labor-saving  inventions,  es 
pecially  in  farming  implements,  this  nation  had,  as  a  whole,  made  more  progress 
than  any  other  in  the  world. 


320    THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Show  whether  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  was  a  movement  toward 
Nationalism  or  States'  rights. 

2.  Let  the  class  imagine  it  is  the  Senate.    Debate  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill.    Some  are  Southerners,  some  are  Northerners,  some  believe  in 
compromise  for  the  sake  of  peace. 

3.  One  writer  says,  "The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  sowed  the  wind;  the 
whirlwind  was  not  long  in  coming."   Show  the  truth  of  this  statement. 

4.  In  the  struggle  for  Kansas,  immigration  became  a  political  rather  than 
a  personal  matter.    Explain. 

5.  Why  was  Perry's  mission  to  Japan  particularly  difficult?    What  has 
the  opening  of  Japan  meant  to  us?   To  Japan? 

6.  If  you  had  helped  plan  the  exhibits  for  the  World's  Fair  of  1853, 
what  particular  inventions  of  the  previous  half-century  would  you 
have  recommended  for  exhibition? 

7.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  speech  for  a  mass  meeting  called  to  protest  against  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  have  gone  to  Kansas  in  1855- from  Wisconsin.  Write 
a  letter  home  in  which  you  describe  the  experience  of  a  day. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  were  with  Perry  in  Japan.  Write  your  impressions  of 
this  unknown  people  and  the  part  they  are  likely  to  play  in  the  world. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

THE  PANIC  OF  1857:  THE  DRED  SCOTT  DECISION 
JOHN  BROWN'S  RAID 

1857-1861 

306.  The  financial  panic  of  1857.  James  Buchanan1  was 
the  next  President.  He  had  been  in  office  but  five  months 
when  the  country  was  visited  by  one  of  the  worst  financial 
panics  in  its  history.  It  is  easy  to  trace  the  origin  of  this 
disturbance.  Business  men,  manufacturers,  and  speculators 
had  had  their  fingers  burned  in  1837;  so  after  that,  for  a 
few  years,  they  were  very  cautious.  But  as  business  slowly 
grew  better,  they  gradually  became  more  daring  and  eager 
in  seeking  riches,  and  took  greater  and  greater  risks.  As 
usual,  their  investments  were  largely  in  city  lots  and  Western 
lands,  and  in  the  building  of  more  railroads  and  factories 
than  the  country  as  yet  needed.  A  large  share  of  these  pur 
chases  of  lands  and  goods  was  not  made  with  real  money, 
but  with  notes,  which  are  merely  promises  to  pay  money,  - 
that  is,  the  transactions  were  made  on  credit.  Nearly  every 
body  seemed  to  be  doing  business  in  this  way.  But  credit  is 
like  a  soap-bubble;  it  can  be  stretched  and  stretched  to  a 
certain  size  —  at  last,  however,  comes  a  moment  when 
it  is  stretched  too  far,  and  then  the  bubble  bursts.  The 
crash  came  in  August,  1857.  A  business  house  in  Cincinnati 
was  unable  to  pay  its  bills,  and  it  failed.  Just  as  a  box  built 
of  cards  collapses  when  one  card  is  withdrawn,  so  hundreds 
of  banks,  factories,  and  stores  suddenly  failed  because  of 
this  one  failure.  Indeed,  the  entire  commercial  system  in 
the  United  States  seemed  to  go  to  pieces  all  at  once.  The 
shock  was  felt  throughout  the  civilized  world,  and  busi 
ness  did  not  fully  recover  from  it  for  several  years. 

1  Buchanan  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1791,  and  died  there  in  1868.  After 
being  educated  as  a  lawyer,  he  sat  in  the  legislature  of  his  State,  and  later 
in  both  houses  of  Congress.  He  was  President  Folk's  Secretary  of  State,  and 
served  as  our  minister  to  Russia  and  then  to  England. 


322     THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

307.  The  Dred  Scott  decision.  In  the  spring  of  1857 
occurred  another  event  that  brought  even  greater  and  more 
lasting  harm  to  the  nation  than  had  the  disastrous  panic. 
The  anti-slavery  men  had  always  contended  that  when  a 
slave  was  taken  by  his  master  into  a  free  State,  and  lived 
there  awhile,  he  thereby  became  a  free  man.  But  the  Fu 
gitive  Slave  Law,  which  provided  for  the  return  of  runaway 
slaves  to  their  masters,  had  been  passed  under  the  idea 
that  a  slave  could  not  obtain  freedom  either  by  running 
away  to  a  free  State  or  by  living  on  free  soil.  Now,  if  this 
were  so,  any  slaveholder  might  take  his  negroes  into  the  free 
States  and  Territories  and  keep  them  there  as  securely  as  in 
the  South ;  so  that  it  really  would  make  no  difference  to 
him  whether  Congress  declared  a  new  State  to  be  free  or 
slave.  It  had  become  very  important,  therefore,  that  the 
Federal  Supreme  Court  should  decide  as  to  which  was  the 
correct  view. 

A  few  days  after  Buchanan's  inauguration  the  Court 
made  such  a  decision.  Some  years  before,  a  negro  named 
Dred  Scott  had  been  taken  by  his  master  from  the  slave 
State  of  Missouri  into  a  free  State  of  the  North,  but  re 
cently  he  had  been  carried  back  again  to  Missouri.  Scott 
thereupon  asked  the  courts  to  declare  him  a  free  man,  for 
the  reason  that  he  had  so  long  resided  on  free  soil.  But  the 
Supreme  Court  said :  - 

(a)  That  Scott  was  still  a  slave  and  not  a  citizen,  there 
fore  he  had  no  legal  rights  and  could  not  seek  justice  in 
our  courts.  He  had  gained  nothing  by  living  on  free  soil. 

(b)  That  slaves  were  just  like  horses,  cattle,  and  other 
property,  and  might  be  taken  into  the  Territories  of  the 
United  States,  if  the  owner  wished. 

(c)  That  the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,  which  had 
set  aside  certain  Northern  soil  as  free,  was  null  and  void,  for 
Congress  had  no  right  to  exclude  slavery  from  the  Terri 
tories. 

This  meant  that  the  long  and  terrible  struggle  over  Kan 
sas  had  been  in  vain;  and  that  slavery  might  be  carried 


HONEST  ABE  LINCOLN 


323 


into  the  free  Territories  of  Oregon  and  Washington.  The 
South  was  pleased  at  this  decision.  But  Northerners  were 
staggered  at  the  utter  defeat  of  their  hopes,  and  sullen  dis 
content  was  expressed  in  tens  of  thousands  of  homes.  Every 
where  men  were  now  coming  to  realize  that  the  two  sections 
could  not  live  happily  together  so  long  as  slavery  continued. 

308.  "  Honest  Abe  "  Lincoln.  In  the  summer  of  1858 
the  eyes  of  the  whole  nation  were  directed  to  Illinois,  where 
there  was  being  waged  one  of  the  fiercest  political  battles 
ever  known  in 
this  country  - 
it  was  really  a 
contest  over  the 
Dred  Scott  de 
cision,  popular 
sovereignty,  and 
the  extension  of 
slavery  into  the 
Territories. 

Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  the 
"  Little  Giant  " 
who  had  intro 
duced  the  Kan 
sas-Nebraska  Bill,  wished  to  be  reflected  to  the  Federal 
Senate,  and  was  the  candidate  of  the  Democrats  for  this 
office. 

The  candidate  of  the  Illinois  Republicans  was  Abraham 
Lincoln,1  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  popular  lawyers  in  that 
State.  As  his  parents  were  extremely  poor,  he  was  in  youth 
obliged  to  do  the  hardest  and  coarsest  kind  of  work,  such 
as  splitting  rails  for  fences  and  serving  as  a  hand  on  a 
fiatboat,  and  for  many  years  his  only  home  was  a  rude  log 
cabin.  Little  by  little  he  worked  his  way  up,  until  by  this 
time  he  had  become  a  leader  in  his  profession.  In  person, 
he  was  tall,  lean,  and  ungainly;  but  his  qualities  of  heart 
1  See  biographical  sketch  of  Lincoln,  on  page  336. 


A  PIONEER  CLEARING 

Lincoln's  birthplace  was  in  similar  surroundings 


324    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

and  mind  were  very  attractive.  In  the  years  of  his  later 
success  he  never  forgot  the  friends  he  made  during  those 
early  years  of  poverty.  He  had  unusual  power  as  a  public 
speaker,  and  was  fond  of  telling  humorous  stories ;  but  every 
story  skillfully  illustrated  a  point  under  discussion.  Lincoln 
was  very  earnest,  and  sympathized  keenly  with  all  human 
suffering.  No  man  knew  better  than  he  how  to  win  and  keep 
the  confidence  of  other  men,  so  that,  with  all  these  splendid 
qualities,  it  is  no  wonder  he  was  beloved  by  his  fellow  citi 
zens,  who  called  him  "  Honest  Abe." 

Each  candidate  sought  the  election  to  the  legislature  of 
men  who  were  pledged  to  vote  for  him ;  for  the  State  leg 
islature  is  the  body  which  elects  the  Federal  Senators.  They 
held  several  public  debates,1  in  which  Douglas  spoke  for 
popular  sovereignty,  and  Lincoln  took  the  side  of  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise  and  the  Wilmot  Proviso.  During  the 
campaign  Lincoln  uttered  these  memorable  words  concern 
ing  slavery  in  the  United  States:  "  A  house  divided  against 
itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  Government  cannot  per 
manently  endure  half  slave  and  half  free.  .  .  .  I  donot  expect 
the  house  to  fall,  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to  be  divided." 

The  legislature  reflected  Douglas  as  Senator ;  but  Lincoln 
had  now  won  a  national  reputation,  which  soon  made  him 
the  banner-bearer  of  Free-State  men  in  the  great  conflict 
so  close  at  hand. 

309.  Discovery  of  gold  in  Colorado.  One  day  in  that 
same  summer  of  1858,  a  year  after  the  great  panic,  a  party 
of  miners  discovered  gold  in  the  bed  of  Dry  Creek,  at  the 
base  of  the  Colorado  hills  a  few  miles  south  of  where  the 
city  of  Denver  now  lies.  The  exciting  news  spread  rapidly 
throughout  the  \vorld,  and  the  usual  stampede  at  once 
set  in,  toward  the  new  gold-fields  of  the  Far  West.  By 
the  following  spring  tens  of  thousands  of  men  of  every  age 
and  race  were  pouring  into  the  "  Pike's  Peak  country,"  as 

1  Seven  meetings  were  held  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  Enormous  crowds 
came  long  distances  by  train,  wagon,  and  on  foot,  to  hear  the  great  discussion. 
The  fame  of  this  debate  spread  all  over  the  country,  and_it  is  still  considered 
one  of  the  leading  events  in  the  history  of  American  politics. 


PETROLEUM   FOUND   IN   PENNSYLVANIA       325 

the  entire  region  was  then  called.1  At  the  close  of  the  sum 
mer  of  1859  Denver  had  become  a  town  of  a  thousand  in 
habitants.  By  1860  it  had  grown  to  be  a  city,  with  theatres, 
newspapers,  and  a  Government  mint  for  making  gold  coin. 
310.  Petroleum  found  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1859  the  first 
petroleum  well  was  sunk  near  Titusville,  Pennsylvania. 
Before  this,  Americans  obtained  their  artificial  light  chiefly 
from  gas,  coal 
oil,  2and oil  made 
from  the  fat  of 
the  sperm  whale; 
nowadays  good 
illuminating  oil 
might  beobtain- 
ed  cheaply  from 
the  earth  in  al 
most  unlimited 
quantities.  The 
discovery  caused 
great  excite 
ment.  Prospect 
ors  and  specu 
lators  rushed  in 
large  numbers 

to  the  oil  region,  and  hundreds  of  wells  were  bored  not  only 
in  Pennsylvania  but  also  in  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Afterwards 
this  industry  was  also  opened  in  New  York,  West  Virginia, 
Kansas,  Texas,  California,  and  elsewhere.  Years  later,  lines 
of  iron  pipes  were  laid  in  the  ground,  stretching  from  the 

1  Soon  daily  stages  were  put  on  between  Leavenworth  and  Denver.    This 
journey  took  fifteen  days  for  the  687  miles,  and  the  fare  was  $100. 

Silver  had  been  discovered  in  Nevada  as  early  as  1853.  Gold  had  been  found 
there  in  1849,  but  not  in  paying  quantities  until  the  summer  of  1859. 

2  Oil  made  by  distilling  coal  was  introduced  in  1850.  Just  before  this,  sperm 
oil  was  selling  at  over  two  dollars  a  gallon;  the  new  "coal  oil"  sold  for  only 
one  dollar,  but  it  had  a  very  strong  and  disagreeable  odor.     Petroleum  had 
been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world  long  before  1859,  but  in  small  quan 
tities  and  by  accident,  when  men  were  digging  for  other  things.  The  Titusville 
well  was  the  first  bored  for  the  definite  purpose  of  finding  oil.   Kerosene  is  one 
of  the  forms  of  refined  petroleum. 


THE   OIL    DISTRICT   OF   PENNSYLVANIA 


These  frameworks,  called  derricks,  support  the  machinery  for  boring 
the  oil-wells.  The  oil  is  pumped  to  reservoirs;  and  thence  through 
pipe-lines  to  distant  cities. 


326    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

oil-fields  to  some  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  country.  Through 
these  pipe-lines  is  pumped  a  good  share  of  the  enormous 
quantities  of  the  petroleum  that  we  now  use  every  day  for 
fuel,  light,  and  power.1 

Some  fifteen  years  after  petroleum  was  introduced,  it  was 
found  that  natural  gas  existed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
wells,  and  might  be  bored  for  the  same  as  oil.  For  a  long 
time  this  gas  was  very  freely  used  for  fuel  and  light  in 
those  cities  and  towns  that  were  near  the  oil-fields.  It  is 
still  in  use  for  this  purpose,  but  the  supply  is  not  so  great 
as  before. 

311.  John  Brown's  raid.  John  Brown  was  one  of  the  most 
active  anti-slavery  men  engaged  in  the  struggle  for  Kansas. 
When  the  trouble  ended  in  that  State  Brown  and  his  three 
sons  moved  to  the  neighborhood  of  Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia. 
Here  they  secretly  formed  a  plot  to  help  the  negroes  of  the 
South  rise  in  rebellion  against  their  masters  and  liberate 
themselves.  With  eighteen  followers  Brown  seized  the 
Federal  Armory  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  distributed  firearms 
to  the  negroes  of  the  region.  But  at  once  the  plotters  were 
surrounded  by  a  party  of  indignant  whites,  and  placed  in 
prison.  After  a  brief  but  regular  trial  Brown  was  hanged 
on  the  charge  of  treason  against  his  country.2 

In  the  North  the  feeling  was  so  strong  against  the  South 
that  many  thousands  of  citizens  declared  Brown  to  be  a 
martyr  in  the  cause  of  liberty.3  Southerners,  on  the  other 
hand,  believed  that  Northerners  wished  to  bring  about  a 
slave  insurrection  with  all  the  horrors  that  must  accompany 
such  an  event.  The  bitterness  between  the  two  sections  was 

1  The  total  length  of  these  lines  is  about  25,000  miles.  Some  of  them  extend 
from  the  Pennsylvania  oil-fields  to  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  New  York,  Philadel 
phia,  and  Baltimore;  and  others  from  Ohio  fields  to  Cleveland  and  Chicago. 

2  Before  dying  he  wrote:  "I,  John  Brown,  am  now  quite  certain  that  the 
crimes  of  the  guilty  land  will  never  be  purged  away  but  with  blood.  I  had,  as  I 
now  think  vainly,  flattered  myself  that  without  much  bloodshed  it  might  be 
done." 

J  His  deed  was  celebrated  by  a  popular  song,  with  this  chorus:  — 
''John  Brown's  body  lies  mouldering  in  the  grave; 
But  his  soul  is  marching  on!" 


JOHN  BROWN'S  RAID  327 

daily  growing;  and  often,  when  Northerners  and  South 
erners  met  each  other  in  public  places,  hot  words  and  threats 
were  exchanged  between  them. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  were  the  causes  of  the  panic  of  1857?   Compare  with  the  causes 
of  the  panic  of  1837. 

2.  Explain  why  the  Dred  Scott  decision  meant  that  the  Kansas  struggle 
had  been  in  vain. 

3.  Did  the  Western  people  favor  Nationalism  or  State  sovereignty?  Why? 

4.  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  that  the  Lincoln-Douglasdebatesattracted 
so  much  attention? 

5.  What  events  were  happening  in  the  North  which  increased  its  pros 
perity? 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  The  news  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision  is  received  by  mail  at  a  village 
store.    Describe  the  scene  and  the  resulting  discussion.    This  may  be 
dramatized. 

2.  Let  some  member  of  the  class  read,  from  a  book  or  magazine,  an  ac 
count  of  one  of  the  Lincoln-Douglas  debates  —  the  crowd,  the  appear 
ance  of  each  of  the  speakers,  the  impression  that  each  made,  etc.,  and 
retell  it  to  the  class. 

3.  Write  two  editorials  on  the  death  of  J  Jhn  Brown,  one  for  a  pro-slavery 
and  one  for  an  anti-slavery  newspaper. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

IMPROVEMENTS   AND   GROWTH 
1830-1860 

312.  Great  inventions  and  discoveries.  In  1836  John 
Ericsson,  a  famous  Swedish  inventor,  introduced  the  screw 
propeller  for  steam  vessels;  but  not  until  he  came  to  live 
in  America,  three  years  later,  was  this  invention  appreciated 
by  shipbuilders.  It  was  a  great  improvement  over  the  old 
paddle-wheel. 

In  1839,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  later  the  inventor  of  the 
telegraph,  and  John  W.  Draper  took  the  first  portraits  ever 
made  by  the  photographic  process  called  ''daguerreotype," 
which  had  recently  been  invented  in  Paris.  It  required 
thirty  minutes  to  make  the  exposure,  and  the  pictures  cre 
ated  widespread  interest. 

In  1839,  also,  there  was  introduced  a  system  for  carry 
ing  parcels  between  New  York  and  Boston.  From  this 
small  beginning  the  business  slowly  extended  throughout 
the  country,  and  was  the  origin  of  the  great  express  com 
panies  of  America.1 

An  important  invention  made  known  in  1845  was  Hoe's 
revolving  printing-press,  which  enormously  increased  the 
rapidity  with  which  printing  could  be  done. 

The  most  important  and  beneficent  discovery  of  the  nine 
teenth  century,  in  the  field  of  medicine,  was  the  use  of  ether 
as  a  means  of  creating  insensibility  to  pain.  A  Boston  dentist 
brought  this  anaesthetic  to  the  attention  of  medical  men  in 
1846;  and  since  that  time  surgical  operations  have  been 
robbed  of  most  of  their  old-time  agonies.  Chloroform  and 
other  anaesthetics  are  now  also  much  used  by  surgeons. 

1  Iri  most  European  countries  the  Post-Office  Department  conducts  the 
express,  telegraph,  and  telephone  services. 


IMPROVEMENTS  AND   GROWTH  329 

During  the  same  year  (1846)  Elias  Howe  patented  the 
first  successful  sewing-machine,  and  thus  relieved  women 
from  much  of  their  hand-sewing. 

In  1850  came  the  first  successful  steam  fire-engine.  Dur 
ing  the  next  year  appeared  both  the  electric  fire-alarm  and 
the  breech -loading  rifle.  The  year  1855  witnessed  the  com 
pletion  of  the  great  suspension  bridge  across  the  yawning 
chasm  of  Niagara,  which  was  then  considered  the  most 
daring  engineering  feat  in  the  world ;  also,  the  introduction 
into  America  of  the  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel,  an 
English  invention. 

American  inventors  quite  revolutionized  the  methods  of 
planting  and  harvesting  crops.  They  made  it  possible  for 
the  Western  farmers,  with  machinery  worked  by  horse-power, 
to  carry  on  their  large  farms  with  but  little  help  in  addition 
to  their  own  families.  Cyrus  H.  McCormick's  reaper,  in 
troduced  in  1840, 1  enabled  one  man  to  do  work  that  formerly 
employed  five.  About  the  same  time  the  threshing-machine, 
which  had  been  an  invention  of  slow  growth,  reached  some 
thing  like  its  present  perfection.  Little  by  little  these  great 
labor-saving  inventions  were  followed  by  scores  of  less  im 
portant  but  very  useful  farm  machines.  Without  these 
devices  the  West,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  hired  la 
borers,  probably  would  have  grown  much  more  slowly  than 
it  did.2 

313.  Improvements  in  the  care  of  unfortunate  classes. 
With  the  rapid  growth  of  our  population,  the  coming  to  our 
shores  each  year  of  many  thousands  of  foreigners,  and  the 
increased  crowding  of  our  cities,  new  problems  arose  in  re 
gard  to  the  care  of  the  defective  classes  and  criminals.  Grad 
ually  there  arose  a  feeling  that  we  should  study  the  condi 
tion  of  these  people  and  see  if  preventives  and  remedies 
might  not  be  applied.  This  led  to  the  building  of  institu 
tions  for  the  better  care  of  the  defectives,  the  erection  of 

1  Invented  in  Virginia  in  1831,  but  not  offered  for  sale  until  1840. 

2  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  who  was  Secretary  of  War  under  President  Lincoln, 
said  that  the  McCormick  reaper  "carried  permanent  civilization  westward 
more  than  fifty  miles  a  year." 


330    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT 

public  hospitals,  improvements  in  the  sanitation  of  jails, 
and  attempts  to  teach  trades  to  prisoners  and  to  reform  them. 
Not  all  of  the  old  problems  were  solved  by  these  new  meth 
ods,  but  by  1860  there  was  a  great  advance  in  such  matters 
over  the  earlier  years  of  the  century. 

314.  Immigration  greatly  increases.  In  1840  there  was 
opened  a  regular  line  of  steamers  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
between  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Immigration  to 
America  from  the  Old  World  began  at  once  to  increase 
rapidly.1  Cheap  and  rapid  ocean  transportation  was  one 
reason  for  this  movement  toward  our  shores ;  but  there  were 
also  other  reasons :  - 

(a)  Discontent  among  the  poorer  classes  of  northern  Eu 
rope,  arising  partly  from  hard  times  and  partly,  in  some 
countries,  from  the  harshness  of  their  rulers. 

(b)  Our  cheap  Western  lands. 

(c)  Our  great  demand  for  laborers.   The  United  States 
was  growing  rapidly,  and  more  and  more  workmen  were 
needed  in  our  railroads,  mills,  and  other  industries. 

Between  1840  and  1860  English,  Irish,  and  Germans  were 
the  most  numerous  of  the  immigrants.  The  Germans  and 
the  English  usually  wished  to  locate  in  a  section  where  the 
soil  could  be  cultivated;  therefore  large  numbers  of  them 
went  to  the  settlements  in  the  Middle  and  Western  States. 
The  Irish  were  not  so  fond  of  pioneer  farming  and  for  the 
most  part  sought  employment  in  the  mines  and  the  in 
dustrial  cities  of  the  East. 

1  The  German  attempt  at  a  liberal  revolution  in  1848  and  the  Irish  "potato 
famine"  of  1845  and  1846,  gave  rise  to  extensive  emigration  from  Europe. 
Many  of  the  Irish  settled  around  New  York  City  and  joined  the  Democratic 
Party  in  politics.  Most  of  the  Germans  went  further  westward,  and  settled 
near  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Louis.  They  generally  became 
Republican  after  1856.  The  Germans  of  Missouri  prevented  the  secession  of 
that  State  in  1861,  while  those  of  Wisconsin,  headed  by  the  young  revolutionist, 
Carl  Schurz  (see  p.  412),  supported  the  Union  cause  and  aided  later  reforms. 
The  visit  of  the  Hungarian  patriot,  Kossuth,  to  America  in  1851,  increased  the 
interest  of  Americans  in  the  European  exiles  who  had  come  to  the  United  States 
in  search  of  free  government.  There  had  been  about  3,000,000  immigrants 
before  1850;  and  there  were  2,600,000  between  1851  and  1860. 


IMPROVEMENTS  AND   GROWTH  331 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  of  1860.    Indicate  ten  of  the  most  im 
portant  cities. 

2.  Plan  a  pageant  to  cover  the  era  from  1830  to  1860. 

(a)  What  striking  historic  incidents  would  you  present?     What 
characters  would  you  represent  in  each? 

(b)  What  inventions  and  discoveries  would  you  show? 

(c)  What  stages  in  transportation  and  the  sending  of  news  might  be 
represented? 

3.  Let  each  of  several  pupils  read  in  class,  without  mentioning  the  name, 
a  short  biography  of  some  inventor,  discoverer,  explorer,  or  scientist 
who  lived  in  this" period,  the  class  to  decide  whom  he  represents. 

4.  What  incidents  or  what  persons  do  the  following  dates  call  to  mind? 

-  1829,  1833,  1837,  1844,  1846-48,  1849,  1850,  1854,  1857,  1859. 

5.  State  four  important  things  that  the  period  from  1830  to  1860  stands 
for  in  your  mind. 

6.  What  institutions  have  your  State  and  community  provided  for  the 
care  of  unfortunate  classes? 

7.  From  which  part  of  Europe  did  most  of  the  immigrants  of  the  nine 
teenth  century  come?     From  what  part  of   Europe  do  most  of  our 
immigrants  now  come?    What  is  being  done  to-day  to  make  the  im 
migrants  good  American  citizens? 

8.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  who  has  an  old  daguerreotype  at  home 
bring  it  to  school;   let  the  class  choose  one  about  which  to  write  a 
story. 

2.  The  farmer  has  a  large  field  of  wheat  to  cut  and  finds  that  he  cannot 
get  hands.     The  newly  invented  reaper  saves  the  day.     Introduce 
characters  and  tell  the  story. 

3.  It  is  suggested  that  each  member  of  the  class  whose  grandfather  or 
grandmother  came  to  this  country  from  Europe  relate  to  the  class  a 
brief  account  of  the  reasons  for  the  immigration,  and  the  early  experi 
ences  of  his  ancestor  or  ancestors  in  this  country. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

THE  most  important  issue  before  the  country  during  the  early 
years  of  the  Period  of  National  Development,  was  the  strict  or  the 
liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution.  This  question  usually 
manifested  itself  in  the  opposing  ideas  of  states'  rights  and  Federal 
power.  The  Federalists  believed  in  a  strong  central  government; 
the  Anti-Federalists  desired  that  the  States  should  have  more 


332    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

power  than  the  Nation.  Washington  and  Hamilton  were  Federal 
ists;  Jefferson  was  the  most  prominent  of  the  Anti-Federalists. 
The  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  have  throughout  our  history 
usually  leaned  toward  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution, 
in  favor  of  enlarged  powers  for  the  Federal  Government. 

The  States  were  slow  to  accept  the  idea  of  Federal  authority. 
In  Washington's  Administration  occurred  the  Whiskey  Rebellion 
in  Pennsylvania;  in  John  Adams's  Administration  the  legislatures 
of  Virginia  and  Kentucky  declared  that  the  Alien  and  Sedition 
Laws  were  null  within  their  borders;  and  during  the  W7ar  of  1812, 
threats  of  secession  came  from  New  England. 

It  was  largely  due  to  Hamilton's  persuasion  that  Congress  voted 
that -the  Nation  should  pay  the  war  debts  of  the  States,  thus  es 
tablishing  public  credit.  Revenue  for  paying  this  debt  was  pro 
vided  by  a  protective  tariff,  and  internal  revenue  taxes. 

The  young  nation  had  many  difficulties  with  France  and  with 
the  British.  In  1793  Washington  issued  his  Neutrality  Proclama 
tion,  declaring  that  we  would  take  no  part  in  the  efforts  of  the 
French  to  form  a  republic.  In  1798  occurred  our  brief  war  with 
France,  ended  by  the  intervention  of  Napoleon.  In  connection 
with  our  differences  with  France  should  be  remembered  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  and  the  UX,  Y,  Z"  affair. 

For  many  years  France  and  Great  Britain  were  at  war  and  each 
was  continually  seizing  our  vessels  laden  with  foodstuffs  for  the 
other.  Jay's  Treaty  (1794),  the  Embargo  Act  (1807),  and  the  Non- 
Intercourse  Act  (1809)  all  had  to  do  with  these  commercial  troubles. 
Our  greatest  grievance,  however,  was  the  impressment  of  Ameri 
can  seamen  by  the  British. 

There  were  conflicts  with  the  Indians  in  the  country  west  of 
the  Alleghenies.  The  Americans  claimed  that  the  savages  were 
encouraged  by  the  British  to  attack  settlers. 

In  June,  1812,  war  was  declared  against  Great  Britain.  The 
Americans  undertook  to  capture  Canada,  but  were  repulsed  by 
the  British,  who  later  were  successful  in  taking  Washington.  The 
Americans,  however,  were  almost  uniformly  successful  at  sea; 
out  of  fifteen  notable  naval  battles  we  won  twelve.  One  of  the 
most  striking  events  of  the  war  was  Andrew  Jackson's  victory  at 
New  Orleans,  an  unnecessary  battle  because  fought  two  weeks 
after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  peace.  The  war  unified  the 
United  States,  improved  the  business  of  her  factories,  and  proved 
to  Europe  her  ability  to  look  out. for  herself. 

In  1803  Jefferson  bought  Louisiana  of  Napoleon  for  $15,000,000. 
This  vastly  increased  our  territory  and  opportunities  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  events  in  our  history.  Fur  traders  and  agri 
cultural  settlers  pushed  westward  in  the  footsteps  of  Lewis  and 


REVIEW  333 

Clark,  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  into  what  was 
known  as  the  Oregon  Territory.  In  1819  the  Spanish  sold  us  the 
Province  of  Florida  for  $5,000,000,  thus  further  increasing  our 
domain. 

After  the  War  of  1812  there  was  a  great  westward  migration. 
New  States  had  been  admitted  to  the  Union  and  it  was  seen  that 
others  would  soon  be  applying  for  admission.  The  question  was 
whether  the  new  States  of  the  future  should  be  slave  or  free,  for 
the  dispute  over  slavery  was  beginning  to  have  a  threatening 
aspect.  When  Missouri  asked  to  be  admitted  to  the  Union  in 
1818,  the  slavery  question  in  such  States  as  should  be  carved 
from  the  Louisiana  Territory  was  temporarily  settled  in  1820  by 
the  Missouri  Compromise. 

In  1823  President  Monroe  sent  a  message  to  Congress  contain 
ing  the  famous  Monroe  Doctrine,  declaring  that  the  American 
continents  should  not  henceforth  be  considered  as  open  to  Euro 
pean  colonization.  Our  foreign  policy  has  ever  since  been  largely 
based  on  this  doctrine. 

With  our  increase  of  territory  questions  of  transportation  be 
came  urgent.  The  need  was  met  by  new  undertakings  and  in 
ventions.  In  1807  the  Clermont  made  its  first  trip  on  the  Hudson; 
after  that,  the  use  of  the  steamboat  spread  rapidly.  The  National 
Road  was  built  between  1806  and  1838 ;  the  Erie  Canal  was  opened 
in  1825,  and  soon  after  that  the  earliest  steam  railroads  were  built 
in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

During  the  period  from  1829  to  1860  the  dispute  over  slavery 
grew  fiercer  from  year  to  year.  Jackson,  Calhoun,  Daniel  Webster, 
Hayne,  Sumner,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Clay,  John  Brown,  Douglas, 
and  Lincoln  were  prominent  advocates  on  one  side  or  the  other. 

It  became  increasingly  evident  that  this  question  threatened 
the  permanence  of  the  Union.  "A  house  divided  against  itself 
cannot  stand."  There  were  also  sectional  differences  as  to  tariff 
and  internal  improvements  that  increased  the  bitterness  of  feeling. 

Important  events  in  connection  with  slavery  during  this  period 
were  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  war  with  Mexico,  the  Compro 
mise  of  1850,  including  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  the  struggle  for 
Kansas,  the  formation  of  the  Republican  party,  the  Dred  Scott 
decision,  John  Brown's  raid,  and  the  debates  between  Douglas  and 
Lincoln. 

Financially  we  may  note  the  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833,  the 
struggle  over  the  National  Bank,  the  establishment  of  many  small 
banks  that  issued  their  own  notes,  and  periods  of  extravagant 
speculation  with  the  resultant  panics  of  1837  and  1857. 

Other  important  events  of  this  period  were  the  effort  at  nulli 
fication  by  South  Carolina,  the  introduction  of  the  spoils  system, 


334    THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT 

the  Webster- Ashburton  Treaty,  the  publication  of  Noah  Webster's 
Dictionary,  the  annexation  of  Oregon  and  of  the  land  conquered 
and  purchased  from  Mexico,  the  discovery  of  great  deposits  of 
gold,  anthracite,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas,  and  Perry's  treaty 
with  Japan. 

The  American  showed  his  genius  for  invention  by  giving  to 
the  world  during  this  period  the  telegraph,  the  submarine  cable, 
the  use  of  anaesthetics,  the  sewing-machine,  the  revolving  print 
ing-press,  the  reaper,  and  the  thresher. 

The  immigrants  during  this  period  were  chiefly  English,  Irish, 
and  German,  the  two  latter  peoples  being  driven  here  by  famine 
in  Ireland  and  political  disturbances  in  Germany.  The  Irish 
settled  in  the  large  cities  of  the  East  and  the  Germans  through 
out  the  farms  and  villages  of  the  Middle  West. 

There  was  a  general  spread  of  humanitarian  ideas,  shown  not 
only  by  interest  in  the  slave,  but  by  care  for  defectives,  improve 
ment  in  the  treatment  of  criminals,  and  the  erection  of  hospitals. 

The  year  1860  found  the  United  States  extending  from  Canada 
to  Mexico,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  prosperous  and  pro 
gressive,  but  distracted  by  sectional  differences  of  feeling  and 
policy. 

RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY   AND    BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  in, 
chaps,  xm-xxiv,  xxvi-xxix;  vol.  iv,  chaps,  n,  iv-vn.  Fiske's  United 
States,  pp.  253-350.  Sparks's  Expansion  of  American  People,  chaps,  xn- 
Xiv,  xx-xxix.  Channing's  Jeffersonian  System,  chaps,  v,  vii,  xn.  Bab- 
cock's  Rise  of  American  Nationality,  chaps,  v-xi,  xv.  Turner's  Rise  of  New 
West,  chaps,  v,  x,  xn,  xm.  McDonald's  Jacksonian  Democracy,  chaps. 
I,  in-v,  ix,  xvni.  Hart's  Slavery  and  Abolition,  chaps,  iv,  vn-ix,  xvm. 
Garrison's  Westward  Expansion,  chaps,  in,  vi-xi,  xm.  T.  C.  Smith's 
Parties  and  Slavery,  chaps.  I,  n,  v,  vii,  ix,  xu,  xm,  xvn,  xix,  xx.  Mc- 
Master's  United  States,  vol.  in,  chap,  xxn:  vol.  iv,  chap,  xxxm;  vol.  v, 
chaps.  XLI,  XLIV,  XLVII;  vol.  vi,  chaps.  LVIII,  LXI,  LXV,  LXIX,  LXXVII, 
LXXIX,  LXXXV;  and  With  the  Fathers,  pp.  1-54.  Wilson's  History  of  Ameri 
can  People,  vol.  in,  chaps,  in,  iv.  Henry  Adams's  History  of  United  States, 
vol.  i,  pp.  185-91.  Rhodes's  United  States,  vol.  I,  chaps.  I,  iv;  vol.  n,  chaps. 
vii,  ix,  x;  vol.  in,  chap.  xii.  Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the  West,  vol.  iv, 
chaps.  I,  ii.  Hosmer's  Short  History  of  Mississippi  Valley,  chaps,  vi,  vii. 
Thwaites's  Rocky  Mountain  Exploration,  pp.  81-187;  Wilson's  Washing 
ton  the  Capital  City,  vol.  I,  chaps,  i-ix.  Laut's  Story  of  the  Trapper.  Gar 
rison's  Texas,  chaps,  xvni,  xxi.  Page's  Old  South,  pp.  143-85,  277-344. 
Schafer's  Pacific  Northwest,  chaps,  ix,  xii,  xiv.  Preble's  History  of  Steam 
Navigation,  pp.  35-66.  Carter's  When  Railroads  were  New,  chaps.  I,  n. 
Wright's  Industrial  Evolution,  pp.  133-42.  Thwaites's  "McCormick," 
in  Wisconsin  Historical  Society  Proceedings,  1908,  pp.  234-59.  Morse's 


REVIEW  335 

Jefferson.  Gay's  Madison.  Goodwin's  Dolly  Madison.  Gilman's  Monroe. 
Sumner's  Andrew  Jackson.  Schurz's  Henry  Clay.  Lodge's  Webster.  Gold- 
win  Smith's  Garrison.  Thurston's  Robert  Fulton.  Morse's  Morse. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book  of  American  History,  chaps,  xi-xvii; 
How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived.  Elson's  Child's  Guide  to  American  His 
tory,  pp.  104-259;  Side  Lights  on  American  History,  vol.  I,  chaps,  vi- 
x,  xn-xvi.  Tappan's  Our  Country's  Story,  pp.  171-207;  American 
Hero  Stories,  pp.  207-54.  Coffin's  Building  of  the  Nation,  chaps,  vni- 
xvi,  xix,  xx,  xxin,  xxv-xxxi,  xxxiv.  Lodge  and  Roosevelt's  Hero 
Tales,  pp.  103-47,  171-81.  Blaisdell  and  Ball's  Hero  Stories  from  American 
History,  chaps,  xi-xiv.  Hurlbut's  Lives  of  Our  Presidents,  pp.  85-169. 
Bolton's  Famous  American  Statesmen,  pp.  133-272.  Abbott's  Blue  Jackets 
of  1812.  Seawell's  Twelve  Naval  Captains,  pp.  53-82,  102-29,  182-91,  208- 
33.  Beebe's  Four  American  Naval  Heroes  (Perry).  Barnes's  Giant  of  Three 
Wars  (Winfield  Scott).  Brooks's  First  Across  the  Continent.  Sparks's 
Book  of  Famous  Explorers  (Lewis  and  Clark).  Irving's  Astoria.  Kingsley's 
Four  American  Explorers  (Fremont).  Perry  and  Beebe's  Four  American 
Pioneers  (Crockett  and  Carson).  Dana's  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast.  Park- 
man's  Oregon  Trail.  Wright's  Children  s  Stories  of  American  Progress, 
pp.  191-229.  Rale's  Stories  of  Invention,  pp.  259-83. 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Allen's  Choir  Invisible.  Altsheler's  Heralds  of  the 
West;  Wilderness  Trail.  Atherton's  Splendid  Idle  Forties.  Bacheller's 
D'ri  and  I.  Bank's  Oldfield.  Cable's  Grandissimes;  Old  Creole  Days.  Ed 
ward  Eggleston's  Circuit  Rider;  Graysons;  Hoosier  Schoolmaster;  Roxy. 
G.  C.  Eggleston's  Dorothy  South.  Hale's  Philip  Nolan's  Friends.  Bret 
Harte's  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp;  Tales  of  the  Argonauts.  Johnston's  Lewis 
Rand;  Old  Times  in  Middle  Georgia.  Paulding's  Westward  Ho!  Stowe's 
Minister's  Wooing;  Uncle  Toms  Cabin. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Aldrich's  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy.  Barr's  Remember  the  Alamo. 
Barton's  Prairie  Schooner  (tale  of  Black  Hawk  War) .  Brady's  Reuben  James. 
Brooks's  Boy  Emigrants.  Butterworth's  Log  School  House  on  the  Columbia. 
G.  C.  Eggleston's  Big  Brother  (and  its  sequels).  Garland's  Boy  Life  on  the 
Prairie.  Hale's  New  England  Boyhood.  Harris's  Aaron  in  the  Wildwoods. 
Henderson's  Strange  Stories  of  1812.  Howells's  A  Boys  Town.  Larcom's 
A  New  England  Girlhood.  Munroe's  Golden  Days  o'f  '49;  With  Crockett 
and  Bowie.  Seawell's  Decatur  and  Somers;  Little  Jarvis;  Midshipman 
Paulding.  Stowe's  Oldtown  Folks.  Tomlinson's  Search  for  Andrew  Field 
(alsoothersof  his  "Stories  of  1812").  Trowbridge's  Cudjo'sCave.  Twain's 
Tom  Sawyer. 

POETRY 

Butterworth's  Death  of  Jefferson;  Whitman's  Ride  for  Oregon.  Halleck's 
Death  of  Drake.  Holmes's  Old  Ironsides.  Key's  Star-Spangled  Banner. 
Longfellow's  Slave's  Dream.  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers.  Miller's  Defence  of  the 
Alamo.  Proctor's  Sacagawea.  Mrs.  Sigourney's  California.  Stedman's 
How  Old  Brown  took  Harper's  Ferry.  Whittier's  Angels  of  Buena  Vista; 
Crisis;  Farewell  of  a  Slave  Mother;  Kansas  Emigrants;  Texas;  Yankee  Girl. 
Willis's  Death  of  Harrison. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE   BEGINNING   OF   LINCOLN'S   ADMINISTRATION: 
SECESSION   OF   THE    SOUTHERN    STATES 

315.  Election  of  President  Lincoln.  The  presidential 
election  in  November,  1860,  resulted  in  the  election  of  Abra 
ham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,1 
the  candidate  of  the  new 
Republican  party.  The 
Republicans  had  insisted 
in  their  platform  that  Con 
gress  should  not  allow  sla 
very  in  the  new  Western 
Terri  tories,  or  in  the  States 
that  should  be  formed  from 
those  Terri  tories.  The  new 
ly  elected  President  and 
members  of  Congress  had 
promised  to  carry  out  this 
policy.  The  Southern  lead 
ers  feared  that  the  Repub 
licans  would  not  only  re 
fuse  to  extend  the  bounds 
of  slavery,  but  would  next 
attempt  to  free  the  slaves 
in  every  section  of  the 
Union.  They  therefore  re 
solved  at  once  to  prevent  such  an  attempt.  As  a  matter 


Capyrirjht,  1891,  by  M.  P.  Rice 

ABRAHAM    LINCOLN 
From  a  photograph  taken  in  1864 


1  Lincoln  was  born  in  1809,  in  Hardin  County,  Kentucky.  When  he  was 
seven  years  old  the  family  moved  to  Indiana;  but  in  his  twenty-first  year 
they  left  that  State  on  foot,  with  an  ox  team,  and  emigrated  two  hundred 


THE  CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA      337 

of  fact,  however,  neither  the  President  nor  Congress  at  that 
time  wished  to  take  any  such  step. 

316.  South  Carolina  secedes.  On  December  20,   1860, 
about  six  weeks  after  Lincoln's  election,1  delegates  from  all 
parts  of  South  Carolina  met  in  convention  at  Charleston 
and  passed  an  "  Ordinance  of  Secession."   This  convention 
repealed  the  laws  under  which  that  State  had  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution  and  declared  "  that  the  Union  now 
subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other  States,  under 
the  name  of  *  The  United  States  of  America,'  is  hereby  dis 
solved."  Having  done  this,  the  members  passed  laws  pre 
paring  the  State  for  war,  for  they  feared  that  the  Federal 
Government  might  attempt  to  force  her  to  remain  in  the 
Union. 

317.  The  Confederate    States   of    America   organized. 
South  Carolina's  example  was  promptly  followed  by  Mis 
sissippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas. 
These  seven  seceding  States  sent  delegates  to  a  convention 
held  at  Montgomery,  the  capital  of  Alabama,  commencing 
February  4, 1861.  This  convention  organized  a  new  govern 
ment,  called  "  The  Confederate  States  of  America."  Its  con 
stitution  was  much  like  that  of  the  United  States,  except 
that:- 

(a)  It  forbade  any  protective  tariff. 

(b)  It  upheld  the  right  of  State  sovereignty. 

(c)  It  agreed  that  the  "  institution  of  negro  slavery  as  it 
now  exists  in  the  Confederate  States  shall  be  recognized 
and  protected." 

miles  westward  to  central  Illinois.  His  parents  were  poor,  hard-working  pio 
neers,  and  the  boy  was  obfiged  to  begin  earning  his  own  way  as  soon  as  possible. 
At  eight  years  of  age  he  could  chop  wood  for  the  household,  and  as  a  young 
man  he  split  fence  rails  for  a  living.  He  was  six  feet  four  inches  tall,  and  of  enor 
mous  strength;  and  he  needed  it  all  in  the  vigorous  out-of-door_  life  which 
he  then  led.  He  was  a  constant  reader  of  the  few  books  to  be  obtained  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  in  1834  he  began  the  study  of  law  in  Springfield.  Twelve 
years  later  this  frontier  lawyer  had  become  one  of  the  leading  men  in  Illi 
nois  and  was  elected  to  Congress.  His  debates  with  Douglas,  which  gave  him 
a  national  reputation  as  one  of  the  great  thinkers  and  statesmen  of  his  age,  have 
already  been  mentioned. 

1  Lincoln,  of  course,  had  not  yet  been  inaugurated.  The  President  at  the  time 
that  South  Carolina  seceded  was  Buchanan,  whose  term  had  begun  in  1857. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE   BEGINNING  OF  LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION: 
SECESSION   OF   THE    SOUTHERN    STATES 

315.  Election  of  President  Lincoln.  The  presidential 
election  in  November,  1860,  resulted  in  the  election  of  Abra 
ham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois,1 
the  candidate  of  the  new 
Republican  party.  The 
Republicans  had  insisted 
in  their  platform  that  Con 
gress  should  not  allow  sla 
very  in  the  new  Western 
Territories,  or  in  the  States 
that  should  be  formed  from 
those  Territories.  The  new 
ly  elected  President  and 
members  of  Congress  had 
promised  to  carry  out  this 
policy.  The  Southern  lead 
ers  feared  that  the  Repub 
licans  would  not  only  re 
fuse  to  extend  the  bounds 
of  slavery,  but  would  next 
attempt  to  free  the  slaves 
in  every  section  of  the 
Union.  They  therefore  re 
solved  at  once  to  prevent  such  an  attempt.  As  a  matter 


Copyright,  1891,  by  M.  P.  Rice 

ABRAHAM    LINCOLN 
From  a  photograph  taken  in  1864 


1  Lincoln  was  born  in  1809,  in  Hardin  County,  Kentucky.  When  he  was 
seven  years  old  the  family  moved  to  Indiana;  but  in  his  twenty-first  year 
they  left  that  State  on  foot,  with  an  ox  team,  and  emigrated  two  hundred 


THE   CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA       337 

of  fact,  however,  neither  the  President  nor  Congress  at  that 
time  wished  to  take  any  such  step. 

316.  South  Carolina  secedes.  On  December  20,   1860, 
about  six  weeks  after  Lincoln's  election,1  delegates  from  all 
parts  of  South  Carolina  met  in  convention  at  Charleston 
and  passed  an  "  Ordinance  of  Secession."   This  convention 
repealed  the  laws  under  which  that  State  had  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution  and  declared  "  that  the  Union  now 
subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other  States,  under 
the  name  of  '  The  United  States  of  America,'  is  hereby  dis 
solved."  Having  done  this,  the  members  passed  laws  pre 
paring  the  State  for  war,  for  they  feared  that  the  Federal 
Government  might  attempt  to  force  her  to  remain  in  the 
Union. 

317.  The  Confederate    States   of    America   organized. 
South  Carolina's  example  was  promptly  followed  by  Mis 
sissippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas. 
These  seven  seceding  States  sent  delegates  to  a  convention 
held  at  Montgomery,  the  capital  of  Alabama,  commencing 
February  4, 1861.  This  convention  organized  a  new  govern 
ment,  called  "  The  Confederate  States  of  America."  Its  con 
stitution  was  much  like  that  of  the  United  States,  except 
that:- 

(a)  It  forbade  any  protective  tariff. 

(b)  It  upheld  the  right  of  State  sovereignty. 

(c)  It  agreed  that  the  "  institution  of  negro  slavery  as  it 
now  exists  in  the  Confederate  States  shall  be  recognized 
and  protected." 

miles  westward  to  central  Illinois.  His  parents  were  poor,  hard-working  pio 
neers,  and  the  boy  was  obfiged  to  begin  earning  his  own  way  as  soon  as  possible. 
At  eight  years  of  age  he  could  chop  wood  for  the  household,  and  as  a  young 
man  he  split  fence  rails  for  a  living.  He  was  six  feet  four  inches  tall,  and  of  enor 
mous  strength;  and  he  needed  it  all  in  the  vigorous  out-of-door  life  which 
he  then  led.  He  was  a  constant  reader  of  the  few  books  to  be  obtained  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  in  1834  he  began  the  study  of  law  in  Springfield.  Twelve 
years  later  this  frontier  lawyer  had  become  one  of  the  leading  men  in  Illi 
nois  and  was  elected  to  Congress.  His  debates  with  Douglas,  which  gave  him 
a  national  reputation  as  one  of  the  great  thinkers  and  statesmen  of  his  age,  have 
already  been  mentioned. 

1  Lincoln,  of  course,  had  not  yet  been  inaugurated.  The  President  at  the  time 
that  South  Carolina  seceded  was  Buchanan,  whose  term  had  begun  in  1857. 


338 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


Jefferson  Davis,1  of  Mississippi,  was  elected  by  the  con 
vention  as  President  of  the  Confederacy,  as  it  was  popu 
larly  called,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia  as  Vice- 
President.  Montgomery  was  chosen  as  the  capital ;  but  later 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Richmond. 

Meanwhile,  a  strong  attempt 
was  being  made  in  Congress  to 
restore  harmony  between  the 
States.  One  proposition  was  to 
ask  the  Northern  States  to  re 
peal  their  personal  liberty  laws, 
that  made  it  impossible  to  en 
force  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
within  their  borders;  another  was 
to  provide  for  the  gradual  free 
dom  of  slaves  by  compensating 
their  owners  for  the  loss  of  their 
property.  But  these  efforts 
failed,  for  the  fire-eaters  were 
in  control  of  the  South  and 
Northern  leaders  were  both  angry  and  divided.  It  did 
not  seem  possible  to  prevent  war  between  them. 

318.  The  Confederates  seize  Federal  property.  When, 
in  1832,  South  Carolina  had  merely  threatened  to  secede, 
President  Jackson  had  promptly  sent  troops  to  prevent  her, 
declaring  that  he  would  never  allow  the  Union  to  be  broken, 
no  matter  what  the  excuse.  President  Buchanan,  however, 
whose  term  of  office  was,  in  1860,  nearing  its  end,  was  a 
weaker  man  than  Jackson.  He  said  that  it  was  wrong  for 

1  Davis  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1808.  After  graduation  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  he  served  for  several  years  in  the  army, 
chiefly  in  the  West,  and  became  a  colonel.  Then  he  settled  down  as  a  cotton 
planter  in  Mississippi,  and  in  1845  was  elected  to  the  Federal  House  of  Represent 
atives.  After  serving  in  the  Mexican  War  he  became  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Senate,  then  Secretary  of  War  under  President  Pierce,  and  again  a  Senator. 
But  he  withdrew  from  the  Senate  when  Mississippi  seceded,  and  soon  was  elected 
President  of  the  Confederacy.  After  the  Civil  War  he  was  imprisoned  at 
Fortress  Monroe  for  two  years,  charged  with  treason;  but  he  was  never  tried, 
and  in  1868  was,  with  other  Secessionists,  pardoned  by  Congress.  He  lived  in 
retirement  at  his  home  in  Mississippi  until  his  death  in  1889. 


JEFFERSON    DAVIS 


LINCOLN'S   INAUGURATION  339 

the  States  to  secede,  but  he  made  no  attempt  to  keep  them 
in  the  Union. 

A  majority  of  the  navy  yards,  arsenals,  and  forts  of  the 
Union  were  at  that  time  located  south  of  the  Mason  and 
Dixon  line.  The  Secessionists  promptly  seized  most  of  these, 
together  with  the  majority  of  the  mints,  custom-houses,  and 
other  Federal  property  in  that  region.  As  a  rule,  it  was  quite 
easy  for  them  to  do  this,  for  the  officials  who  had  charge  of 
such  property  were  in  most  cases  Southerners,  who  were 
more  loyal  to  their  native  States  than  they  were  to  the  Na 
tion.  Such  men  made  little  resistance,  and  often  none  at 
all,  to  the  demands  of  the  Confederacy.  Thus  the  Federal 
Government  suffered  great  losses  in  the  South,  and  the  cause 
of  secession  was  correspondingly  strengthened. 

319.  President  Lincoln's  inauguration.  When  President 
Lincoln  entered  upon  his  high  office  in  March,  1861,  there 
was  tremendous  excitement  throughout  the  country,  both 
North  and  South.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  earnestly 
declared :  - 

(a)  That  he  had  "  no  purpose,   directly  or  indirectly,  to 
interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  "  in  the  States  where 
it  existed. 

(b)  That  he  purposed  "  to  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  " 
the  Union;  for  "  the  Union  of  the  States  is  perpetual.    No 
State  can  lawfully  get  out  of  the  Union."    This  was  the 
position  taken  by  Jackson  nearly  thirty  years  before. 

(c)  That  he  would  carry  out  the  laws  of  the  Union  in  every 
State  and  would  "  hold,  occupy,  and  possess  "  all  the  prop 
erty  of  the  Federal  Government,  wherever  it  might  be. 

(d)  That,  if  there  must  be  war,  he  would  not  begin  it.  He 
concluded  the  statement  of  his  position  with  these  words, 
addressed  to  the  South:  "  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied 
fellow  countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue 
of  civil  war.    The  Government  will  not  assail  you.  You  can 
have  no  conflict  without  being  yourselves  the  aggressors. 
We  are  not  enemies  but  friends." 

The  North  was  greatly  pleased  with  this  stirring  address, 


340  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

for  the  President  had  stated  the  opinions  then  held  by  a 
large  majority  of  the  people  of  that  section. 

320.  Unfortunate    condition   of   the    Government.  The 
resources  of  the  United  States  Government  were  at  that  time 
at  a  low  ebb.    President  Buchanan's  weak  policy  of  non- 
resistance  to  secession  left  the  army  and  navy  almost  with 
out  men,  officers,  money,  or  supplies.1  Only  a  few  small  forts 
and  navy  yards  in  the  South  had  remained  in  Federal  hands, 
Some  of  the  best  vessels  in  the  navy  were  on  cruises  in  dis 
tant  seas;  about  forty  were  in  home  ports  in  the  North,  but 
of  these  only  three  were  really  effective  ships.    The  national 
treasury  was  almost  empty,  and  bankruptcy  seemed  to  stare 
the  Union  in  the  face.   Large  numbers  of  the  most  compe 
tent  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  were  Southerners.   When 
their  States  seceded,  they  resigned  their  positions  in  the  Fed 
eral  service  and  entered  that  of  the  Confederacy.    Many  of 
our  ablest  statesmen  were  also  from  the  South,  and  they 
too  followed  their  States  into  the  ranks  of  secession.    The 
new  Republican  Administration  was  composed  of  men  with 
little  experience  in  conducting  a  great  government.    This 
would  have  been  unfortunate  even  in  times  of  peace;  but 
it  was  far  worse  in  times  of  unrest,  with  a  civil  war  threat 
ening  the  land. 

321.  Fort  Sumter  captured  by  Confederates.  President 
Lincoln  was  true  to  his  promise  not  to  begin  a  war  with  the 
South.    But  an  event  soon  happened  that  brought  on  the 
conflict  much  sooner  than  had  been  expected.    Major  An 
derson,  the  commander  of  Fort  Sumter,  which  guarded  the 
harbor  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  remained  loyal  to 
the  Union  and  would  not  surrender  to  the  Confederates; 
they  therefore  tried  to  starve  out  him  and  his  garrison  by 
driving  off  vessels  that  sought  to  reach  the  fort  with  food 
and  other  supplies.    Finding  themselves  unable  to  force  a 

1  General  Winfield  Scott,  a  native  of  Virginia,  and  a  popular  hero  of  the 
Mexican  War,  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  United  States  at  the 
time  the  Civil  War  began.  He  was  loyal  to  the  Union,  but  old  age  and  infirm 
ity  prevented  him  from  taking  part  in  the  war  and  he  retired  from  the  service 
on  full  pay.  He  died  at  West  Point  in  1866,  being  then  eighty  years  old. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  BEGINS  341 

surrender  in  this  way,  the  Confederates  bombarded  the 
fort,  on  April  12;  and  after  a  brave  resistance  of  thirty-four 
hours,  Anderson  and  his  men  were  obliged  to  haul  down  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  that  floated  above  their  shattered  walls. 

Up  to  this  time  a  majority  of  the  people  in  the  North  had 
hoped  that  civil  war  might  be  averted.  Even  those  who  were 
fearful  of  the  results  of  those  startling  proceedings  in  the 
South  were  divided  in  opinion  as  to  whether  it  was  wise  to 
attempt  to  compel  the  seceding  States  to  come  back  into 
the  Union.  Many  prominent  Northern  men  had  declared 
that  the  "erring  sisters"  ought  to  be  "allowed  to  go  in 
peace."  But  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter  and  the  country's 
flag  at  once  changed  all  this.  The  news  of  the  exciting  event 
was  instantly  telegraphed  far  and  wide  and  stirred  the 
Northern  people  like  an  insult  from  a  foreign  foe.  They  were 
aroused  to  action,  and  virtually  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  in  that  section  at  once  demanded  that  the  Secessionists 
be  severely  dealt  with  and  brought  back  into  the  Union.1 

322.  The  President  calls  for  troops.  President  Lincoln 
wisely  took  advantage  of  this  strong  outburst  of  loyal  feel 
ing  in  the  North,  and  promptly  asked  the  States  to  send  him 
75,000  volunteers  to  "  cause  the  laws  to  be  duly  exercised." 
The  call  awoke  the  North  to  the  highest  pitch  of  military  en 
thusiasm.  Men  were  eager  at  once  to  leave  their  farms  and 
trades,  their  shops,  stores,  and  factories,  and  their  professions, 
and  enlist  in  the  volunteer  army.  Thousands  of  college  stu 
dents  deserted  their  classrooms  and  hurried  to  the  recruiting 
offices.  Even  boys  of  fifteen  and  sixteen  enlisted  in  the  ranks, 
and  often  lads  of  twelve  served  as  drummer  boys.  Many 
more  offered  themselves  than  the  President  could  accept. 

When,  after  learning  how  to  drill,  the  hastily  formed 
companies  and  regiments  were  ready  to  leave  their  cities 
and  villages  for  the  front,  the  people  crowded  the  streets 

1  When  the  Confederate  Cabinet  decided  to  try  to  capture  Fort  Sumter, 
such  action  was  opposed  by  one  of  its  members,  Robert  Toombs.  He  said: 
"The  firing  upon  that  fort  will  inaugurate  a  civil  war  greater  than  any  the  world 
has  yet?  seen."  He  declared  that  the  proposed  assault  would  be  "striking  a 
hornets'  nest,"  whose  "legions  now  quiet  will  swarm  out  and  sting  us  to  death." 


342  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

to  see  the  smartly  dressed  soldiers  l  march  to  the  railway 
stations  with  their  flags  flying  and  with  the  stirring  sound 
of  fife  and  drum.  Often  the  school-children,  in  holiday  attire, 
lined  the  roadside,  sang  patriotic  songs,  and  scattered  flow 
ers  in  the  paths  of  the  volunteers.  It  was  generally  ex 
pected  that  there  would  be  but  little  fighting,  and  that  the 
North  would  win  an  easy  victory.  There  were,  neverthe 
less,  many  heartrending  scenes,  when  mothers,  wives,  sis 
ters,  and  sweethearts  parted  from  loved  ones  who,  they 
feared,  might  never  return  to  their  homes.  But  lightening 
this  sorrow  of  leaving  was  the  buoyant  spirit  of  patriotism, 
for  every  man  or  boy  felt  that  he  was  serving  his  native 
land  in  a  time  of  the  gravest  peril.  In  obeying  the  call  of 
the  President,  he  was  gladly  offering  his  life,  if  needed,  to 
the  cause  of  the  Union  and  its  flag. 

323.  The  effect  in  the  South.  The  President's  call  for 
volunteers  had  been  sent  to  all  of  the  States,  including  of 
course  those  in  the  South  that  had  not  yet  seceded.  But  the 
governors  of  such  States  refused  to  send  men  to  assist  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  in  coercing  their  neighbors  who  had  gone  out 
of  the  Union.  The  governors  said  that  the  Secessionists 
had  a  perfect  right  to  withdraw,  if  they  saw  fit  to  do  so,  and 
any  attempt  to  prevent  them  was  "  unlawful  interference 
with  their  local  affairs."  The  feeling  of  resentment  and  the 
eagerness  for  war  were  so  strong  in  the  South  that  Virginia, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  North  Carolina  soon  withdrew 
from  the  Union  themselves  and  joined  the  Confederacy, 
which  now  consisted  of  eleven  slave  States. 

When  Virginia  went  out,  she  sought  to  take  with  her  the 
stronghold  of  Fortress  Monroe,  but  its  commander  success 
fully  defended  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  Virginia  did  contrive, 
however,  to  seize  the  navy  yard  at  Norfolk  and  $10,000,000 
worth*  of  military  supplies  that  happened  to  be  in  the 
State. 

People  dwelling  in  mountain  valleys  are  apt  to  be  poor, 
for  usually  they  can  have  only  small  farms  and  these  con- 

1  The  Union  uniform  was  blue;  the  Confederate  color  was  gray. 


STRENGTH  AND  WEAKNESS   OF   BOTH  SIDES     343 

tain  but  little  level,  rich  land  on  which  to  grow  crops.  There 
were  but  few  slaves  in  such  communities,  for  the  mountain 
eers  could  not  afford  to  own  them;  and  leading  isolated 
lives,  they  were,  also,  lovers  of  freedom.  Such  was  the  char 
acter  of  the  settlers  in  the  narrow  valleys  of  the  Alleghenies 
and  the  Blue  Ridge.  They  were  opposed  both  to  slavery  and 
to  secession.  In  1863  the  people  in  the  western  mountains 
of  Virginia  withdrew  from  their  slaveholding  neighbors  to 
the  east  and  entered  the  Union  as  a  new  free  State,  under 
the  name  of  West  Virginia.  The  so-called  "  Border  States" 
—  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri  —  would 
not  vote  to  leave  the  Union;  but  while  the  majority  of  their 
citizens  favored  the  North  and  many  served  in  its  armies, 
large  numbers  of  them  joined  Confederate  regiments. 

While  the  North  was  with  such  patriotism  and  confidence 
raising  an  army  to  preserve  the  Union,  the  South  was,  with 
equal  vigor,  enthusiasm,  and  certainty  of  an  early  victory, 
raising  its  own  army  to  resist  that  of  the  North.  The  same 
scenes  were  taking  place  on  both  sides  of  the  Mason  and 
Dixon  line  —  the  same  heroism  on  the  part  of  the  men  and 
youth,  the  same  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  lonely  women 
who  stayed  behind  to  care  for  their  homes,  the  same  fond  and 
tearful  farewells  as  the  volunteers  left  for  the  front. 

324.  The  strength  and  weakness  of  both  sides.  Each 
side  in  the  great  American  Civil  War,  which  now  followed, 
began  the  conflict  with  certain  advantages  and  certain  dis 
advantages  :  - 

(a)  The  white  population  of  the  South  was  about  one  fourth 
that  of  the  North.1  This  meant  that  the  South  could  not 
raise  so  large  an  army  as  could  the  North,  for  there  were 
not  so  many  men  to  draw  from.  Less  than  half  of  the  North 
ern  men  and  boys  who  were  subject  to  military  duty,  from 
eighteen  to  forty  years  of  age,  actually  served  in  the  Federal 
army,  either  as  volunteers  or  as  drafted  men;  the  others 

1  The  twenty-three  States  that  remained  loyal  to  the  Union  contained 
about  22,000,000  people;  there  were  only  9,000,000  in  the  eleven  seceding  States, 
of  whom  probably  3,500,000  were  slaves. 


344  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

were  not  needed.    In  the  South,  nine  tenths  of  the  men  and 
boys  of  proper  age  were  soldiers.1 

But  the  South  had  an  advantage  in  the  fact  that  she  could 
spare  nearly  all  of  her  white  male  population  for  the  war; 
for  there  were  few  industries  to  keep  them  at  home,  and  most 
of  the  negro  slaves,  whom  it  was  not  considered  safe  to  arm, 
remained  on  the  plantations  and  raised  the  crops  that  fed 
the  Confederate  army.  These  plantations  had  up  to  that 
time,  however,  raised  almost  nothing  else  than  cotton,  rice, 
and  tobacco,  for  the  South  had  obtained  much  of  her  grains 
and  meat  from  the  North.  The  negroes  knew  little  about 
the  raising  of  food  crops.  The  North,  however,  raised  al? 
of  its  own  food  supply.  And  the  recent  introduction  of  horse 
power  machinery  on  the  farms  made  it  possible  for  North 
ern  women  and  children  to  plant  and  gather  crops  while 
the  men  were  away  in  the  army. 

(b)  The  South  had  very  few  factories,  mills,  foundries, 
shipyards,  or  skilled  mechanics.     But  the  North  had  all 
these  in  great  abundance,  and  thus  could  make  nearly  all 
of  her  own  war  material,  from  a  pair  of  shoes  to  a  gunboat. 
Her  great  mines  could  supply  coal  and  iron  to  carry  on 
these  industries,  and  her  many  railroads  and  steamboats 
were  able  quickly  to  transport  troops  and  supplies  to  any 
point  at  which  they  might  be  needed ;  but  the  South  had 
almost  no  mines  and  but  few  railroads  or  steamboats. 

(c)  The  wealth  and  resources  of  the  North  were  vastly 
greater  than  those  of  the  South.  In  the  North  were  thousands 
of  banks,  that  readily  loaned  money  to  the  Federal  Govern 
ment  to  carry  on  the  war ;  and  the  Government  was  also  able 
to  borrow  money  for  this  purpose  in  foreign  countries.   The 
South  did  not  have  the  credit  of  a  great  Government,  as  had 
the  North ;  she  could  raise  little  money  except  by  selling  her 
crops  in  Europe,  particularly  in  England  and  France,  which 
for  many  years  had  been  her  principal  customers;  but  the 

1  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  men  drafts  were  more  frequent  in  the  South  than 
in  the  North — toward  the  last,  all  Southerners  between  the  ages  of  seventeen 
and  sixty  were  liable  to  be  called  on  for  military  service. 


STRENGTH  AND  WEAKNESS  OF  BOTH  SIDES    345 

Southerners  hoped  that  these  old-time  friends  would  now 
generously  come  to  their  assistance  witfy  men,  money,  and 
arms.  It  was  important  to  the  North,  therefore,  that  the 
Federal  Navy  should  be  able  to  keep  close  guard  over  the 
Southern  seacoast,  or  blockade  it,  in  order  to  prevent  South 
ern  cargoes  from  reaching  Europe  or  European  vessels  from 
bringing  aid  to  the  South.  If  this  blockade  could  be  made 
successful,  and  the  South  be  cut  off  from  communication 
with  Europe,  then  the 
resources  of  the  Con 
federacy  would  be  poor 
indeed.  Although  the 
Federal  Government 
had  at  the  beginning 
of  the  struggle  a  weak 
navy,  it  was  able  at 
once  to  buy  merchant 
vessels  that  could  quick 
ly  be  made  over  into 
warships,  and  Northern 
shipyards  were  soon 
busy  making  men-of- 
war.  It  was  not  long  */  >c 
before  the  Union  navy 
was  big  enough  and 
strong  enough  for  the 
work  which  it  had  to 
do. 

(d)  In  the  North  were  many  men  who  had  been  trained 
to  manage  large  business  and  industrial  enterprises.  The 
Union  army  could  have  their  advice  and  help  in  the  trans 
portation,  feeding,  and  clothing  of  troops,  the  management 
of  railroads,  the  building  of  bridges,  and  such  work;  and 
among  the  soldiers  in  every  regiment  were  sure  to  be  hun 
dreds  of  skilled  workmen  of  all  kinds,  who  could  at  a  mo 
ment's  notice  make  or  repair  roads,  bridges,  wagons,  barns, 
houses,  clothing,  harness,  tents,  and  the  many  other  arti- 


GENERAL  ROBERT  EDWARD  LEE 


346  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

cles  constantly  needed  by  an  army  in  the  field.  The  North 
ern  navy,  also,  was  largely  made  up  of  brave  and  experi 
enced  sailors,  the  sort  who  so  splendidly  manned  our  ves 
sels  in  the  War  of  1812.  The  South  had  few  sailors.  But 
the  Federal  naval  and  military  supplies  which  she  captured 
before  war  was  declared  were  of  great  advantage  to  her;  so 
also  were  her  many  army  officers  who  had  been  educated 
at  West  Point.  The  greatest  of  these  was  General  Robert 
E,  Lee,  who  soon  became  the  head  of  the  Southern  army.1 

(e)  The  South  had  still  another  important  advantage 
-  during  most  of  the  period  of  the  war  she  was  acting  on 
the  defensive.  Her  soldiers  were  familiar  with  the  hills, 
rivers,  roads,  bridges,  and  fords  of  their  own  region;  thus  a 
small  number  of  them  often  were  able  to  repel  the  attack 
of  a  much  larger  Federal  body  that  did  not  know  the  coun 
try.  Then,  again,  men  can  always  fight  best  when  defending 
their  homes.  For  these  reasons  the  South  really  needed 
fewer  soldiers  than  did  the  invading  army  from  the  North ; 
and  as  the  Southern  troops  were  nearer  home,  it  did  not  cost 
so  much  to  move  them  about  from  place  to  place  as  it  did 
the  Northern  volunteers. 

325.  How  geography  affected  the  war.  The  geography 
of  the  United  States  had  much  to  do  with  the  result  of  the 
Civil  War.  Some  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  West,  like  the 
Mississippi,  the  Cumberland,  and  the  Tennessee,  were  partly 
within  the  Union,  but  also  ran  through  the  heart  of  the 
seceding  States.  The  question  to  be  settled  was,  Would  the 
Federal  Government  be  able  to  send  armed  steamboats 

1  Robert  E.  Lee  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1807,  a  son  of  "Light-horse  Harry" 
Lee,  of  Revolutionary  fame,  was  educated  at  West  Point,  and  served  gallantly 
in  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army  when  Virginia 
withdrew  from  the  Union,  and  was  opposed  to  secession,  but  he  felt  it  his  duty 
to  follow  his  State.  "  I  cannot,"  he  said,  consent  to  fight  "against  my  relatives, 
my  children,  my  home."  General  Lee  was  a  man  of  the  highest  and  purest 
character,  passionately  fond  of  his  State,  one  of  the  most  skillful  soldiers  of 
history,  and  greatly  beloved  by  all  Southern  people.  Some  years  after  the 
Civil  War,  Lee  became  president  of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington,  Virginia. 
His  services  to  this  institution  were  such  that  after  his  death,  in  1870,  his  name 
was  coupled  with  that  of  George  Washington  in  the  designation  of  the  college, 
—which  is  now  called  Washington  and  Lee  University. 


HOW  GEOGRAPHY  AFFECTED   THE  WAR      347 

through  the  entire  length  of  those  waterways,  and  thus  con 
trol  them?  If  she  could  do  this,  the  Confederacy  would  be 
cut  in  two;  the  Secessionists  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
could  then  no  longer  help  their  friends  on  the  Atlantic  Coast ; 
and  in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  where  the  largest  food 
crops  were  raised,  the  Union  would  be  stronger  than  the 
Confederacy. 

In  the  East  the  Confederates  had  certain  advantages. 
The  deep  and  sheltered  mountain  valleys  of  Virginia,  which 
run  northeastward,  made  it  easy  for  Southern  troops  to 
approach  with  comparative  safety  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Washington  and  southern  Pennsylvania.  On  the  other  hand, 
Northern  troops  on  their  march  towards  the  Confederate 
capital  at  Richmond  had  to  cross  many  broad  rivers;  these 
were  bordered  by  thick  forests  and  wide  swamps,  through 
which  they  found  it  extremely  difficult  to  travel,  especially 
in  wet  weather. 

But  the  Union  had  control  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  which  has 
several  arms  reaching  up  into  Virginia.  By  means  of  some 
of  these  waterways  her  naval  vessels  were  able  to  approach 
quite  closely  to  Richmond,  carrying  troops  and  supplies  to 
the  Federal  army  while  it  was  besieging  the  city. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Name  at  least  three  occasions  previous  to  1860  when  State  sovereignty 
was ^  threatened.    How  are  we  tending  to-day,  —  toward  a  stronger 
National  or  a  stronger  State  feeling? 

2.  Contrast  Buchanan's  attitude  towards  nullification  with  that  of  Jack 
son. 

3.  Which  did  Lincoln  care  for  more,  the  preservation  of  the  Union  or 
the  destruction  of  slavery?  Prove  your  answer. 

4.  What  steps  had  been  taken  to  settle  the  slavery  question  peaceably? 
Why  were  they  not  effective? 

5.  Lincoln  said  in  1861,  "I  cannot  but  know  .  .  .  that  .  .  .  there  has 
fallen  upon  me  a  task  such  as  did  not  rest  even  upon  the  Father  of  his 
Country."    Show  that  he  was  right. 

6.  When  and  where  was  the  first  Secession  Convention  held?  At  that  time 
some  one  wrote,  "The  excitement  of  the  greac  masses  of  the  people  is 
great  under  a  sense  of  deep  wrongs."  Name  the  wrongs  that  the  South 
felt  she  had  been  made  to  endure. 


348  THE  CIVIL  WAR  t 

7.  Locate  Charleston,  Montgomery,  Washington,  Richmond. 

8.  "The  news  of  the  capture  of  Sumter  had  an  instant  and  tremendous 
effect.    For  the  moment  the  North  seemed  a  unit."    Compare  the  feel 
ing  throughout  the  North  before  and  after  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter. 

9.  Learn  the  five  stanzas  beginning  "Once  to  every  man  and  nation 
comes  the  moment  to  decide,"  and  the  final  stanza  in  Lowell's  The 
Present  Crisis. 

10.  Show  how  the  geographic  conditions  of  what  is  now  West  Virginia 
influenced  the  people  in  the  stand  they  took  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War. 

11.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States.  Indicate  by  one  color  the  Confeder 
ate  States,  by  another  color  the  Union  States,  and  by  still  another 
color  the  Border  States. 

12.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

13.  Important  date:  April,  1861  —  Beginning  of  the  Civil  War. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  member  of  a  Kentucky  family.   You  have 
noticed  that  the  older  members  of  the  family  have  been  serious  for 
several  days.    One  evening  your  father  announces  that  he  will  join  the 
Confederate  army,  your  eldest  brother  that  he  will  join  the  Union 
forces.    Describe  the  parting  and  give  the  conversation  that  took  place. 

2.  Write  two  entries  in  the  diary  of  an  officer  in  the  United  States  army 
in  1861.  His  State  has  seceded.   Shall  he  serve  his  State  or  the  Union? 
Let  the  second  entry  show  his  decision. 

3.  A  young  man  of  eighteen  was  very  anxious  to  join  the  Union  army  in 
one  of  the^  Border  States,  but  was  refused  admission  on  account  of 
some  physical  defect.    During  the  war  he  did  a  courageous  deed  that 
made  him  quite  a  hero.   Write  an  original  story  from  these  facts. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 


I    A 


THE  BATTLES  OF   l86l   AND   1862 ;  THE  EMANCIPATION 

PROCLAMATION 

• 

326.  Battle  of  Bull  Run.  Washington  and  Richmond,  the 
respective  capitals  of  the  Union  and  of  the  Confederacy, 
are  less  than  a  hundred  miles  apart,  in  a  straight  line.  For 
a  long  time  the  chief  desire  of  the  opposing  armies  was  to 
capture  each  other's  seat  of  government.  The  people  of  the 

North,  who  now  were  eager 
for  the  war,  kept  prodding 
the  President  and  the  army 
with  the  cry,  "  On  to  Rich 
mond!  "  The  Southern  peo 
ple  just  as  eagerly  urged 
their  army  to  push  "  On  to 
Washington!" 

At  first  the  Confederate 
forces  held  the  greater  part 
of  the  Potomac  River  and 
its  banks.  They  were  able 
to  advance  as  far  as  the  Bull 
Run,  a  small  stream  at 
Manassas  Junction,  within 
thirty  miles  of  Washington. 
Union  troops  were  hurried 
southward  from  all  the  loyal 
States,  to  thrust  the  enemy  back  from  such  close  prox 
imity  to  the  capital.  One  of  the  Massachusetts  regiments 
was  marching  through  Baltimore  when  it  was  attacked 
by. a  mob  and  several  soldiers  were  killed  —  theirs  was  the 
first  blood  to  be  shed  in  the  war.1  On  a  hot  Sunday, 

1  In  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  no  one  on  either  side  was  killed  or 
seriously  wounded. 


THE  SCENE  OF  WAR  NEAR  WASH 
INGTON  AND   RICHMOND 


THE  BATTLES  OF   1861   AND    1862  351 

July  21,  1 86 1,  the  first  real  battle  of  the  war  was  fought, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Bull  Run.  The  Northern  volun 
teers  were  "  gre.en,"  for  neither  officers  nor  men  had  yet 
learned  how  to  fight;  but  the  Southern  troops  were  under 
old  and  experienced  army  officers,  and  they  drove  the  Union 
forces  in  confusion  from  the  field.1 

327.  Both  sides  make  their  plans  for  war.  This  defeat 
made  it  plain  to  the  North  that  there  had  now  begun  a 
serious  war,  one  that  was  not  to  be  ended  by  raw  volunteers 
in  a  few  months,  as  had  at  first  been  hoped.  However,  very 
little  fighting  took  place  in  the  six  months  following  Bull 
Run.  The  inaction  of  the  Union  troops  now  encamped  along 
the  Potomac  River  caused  much  discontent  in  the  North ; 
and  the  frequent  report  of  their  commander,  "  All  quiet 
on  the  Potomac,"  was  greatly  ridiculed.  But  both  sides 
were  busy  enough  in  organizing  and  drilling  their  armies,  col 
lecting  arms,  ammunition,  clothing,  wagons,  and  other  war 
material,  and  making  plans  for  a  long  and  serious  conflict. 

The  North's  plans  for  subduing  the  rebellion  were  three 
fold:- 

(a)  To  capture  Richmond,  and  then  to  drive  the  Con 
federate  army  southward  along  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

(b)  To  obtain  control  of  the  full  length  of  the  Mississippi 
River  and  its  principal  Southern  tributaries  —  chiefly  the 
Cumberland  and  the  Tennessee;  then,  having  expelled  the 
enemy  from  these  waters  and  thus  driven  a  wedge  through 
the  Confederacy  from  north  to  south,  to  send  an  army  east 
ward  from  Tennessee  to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and  split  the 
South  in  two  the  other  way. 

(c)  To  blockade  the  Southern  coast  and  as  far  as  possible 
to  prevent   the   Confederates   from   doing   business  with 
Europe. 

1  It  was  in  this  battle  that  General  Thomas  J.  Jackson  of  Virginia,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Confederate  commanders,  won  his  famous  nickname,  "Stone 
wall"  Jackson.  Once  the  Southern  soldiers  were  wavering,  but  they  rallied 
under  Jackson's  orders,  and  "  gave  the  bayonet"  to  the  "  Unioners."  In  shout 
ing  encouragement  to  his  men,  one  of  the  Confederate  officers  pointed  to  the 
General  as  an  example,  saying,  "Look!  There  is  Jackson  standing  like  a  stone 
wall!" 


352 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


The  plans  of  the  Confederates  were  almost  wholly  those 
of  defense.  But,  as  we  shall  see,  they  sent  out  privateers 
against  Northern  shipping;  they  hoped  by  bold  strokes  to 
take  Washington  and  to  make  raids  across  the  Union  lines 
into  some  other  parts  of  the  North ;  and  they  were  confident 
that  after  a  time  they  would  become  masters  of  all  the 
doubtful  Border  States.1 

328.  Blockade-running.  The  owners  of  cotton  mills  in 
England  were  almost  wholly  dependent  for  their  raw  ma 
terial  on  the  cotton  of  the  Southern  States. 
They  needed  it  quite  as  badly  as  the  plant 
ers  needed  the  money  which  would  be 
paid  to  them   for  their  crop.     When,  \ 
therefore,   the   Union   blockade  made 
it  very  difficult  for  the  South  to  ship 
cotton  to  Europe,  there  was  wide 
spread  consternation  on  both  sides 
of  the  ocean.   The  price  of  this  ar- 


x   i    c 


THE   BLOCKADED   SOUTHERN   COAST 

tide  at  once  fell  to  a  low  figure  in  the  South,  because  the 
planter  could  not  easily  reach  his  customers.  But  in  Europe 
—  and  also  in  the  North,  since  trade  with  the  South  was 

1  Great  Britain  and  several  other  European  countries  soon  recognized 
the  Confederate  States  as  a  belligerent  —  that  is,  the  people  of  these  States  were 
declared  by  these  foreign  powers  not  to  be  rebels  against  the  Union',  but  to  be 
conducting  a  regular  war  against  a  hostile  nation.  Under  the  rules  of  interna 
tional  law,  therefore,  the  United  States  was  henceforth  obliged  to  treat  all  cap 
tured  Confederates  as  prisoners  of  war,  and  not  to  punish  them  for  treason 
against  the  Federal  Government. 


THE  BATTLES  OF   1861   AND   1862  353 

now  suspended  —  the  scarcity  of  the  article  and  the  cost  of 
getting  it  made  the  price  very  high.  When  a  cargo  managed 
to  reach  the  European  manufacturer  he  paid  a  large  sum  of 
money  for  it ;  but  nearly  all  the  profits  went  to  the  men  who 
sailed  the  blockade-runners.  These  were  small,  fast,  and 
heavily  armed  vessels  that,  under  cover  of  dark  and  foggy 
nights,  stole  their  way  into  Southern  ports,  past  the  watchful 
Union  vessels.  Hastily  loading  at  the  wharves  with  bales 
of  cotton,  they  passed  out  again  to  sea,  —  sometimes,  how 
ever,  having  a  sharp  fight  with  the  blockading  fleet,  —  and 
steered  for  the  West  Indies.  There  the  cotton  was  reloaded 
into  ocean-going  vessels  that  sailed  for  Europe. 

But  the  dangers  of  this  traffic  were  so  great  that  only  now 
and  then  could  such  a  cargo  successfully  cross  the  Atlantic. 
The  trade  was  very  small,  indeed,  compared  with  that  which 
had  prevailed  before  the  war.  Nothing  hurt  the  South 
quite  as  much  as  the  Union  blockade.  For  a  long  period  of 
years  Southerners  had  proudly  said,  "  Cotton  is  King." 
This  meant  that  with  cotton  they  were  able  to  buy  about 
everything  they  wanted  —  they  could  command  the  mar 
kets  of  the  world.1  But  now  their  great  crop  could  hardly 
be  sold  at  all  —  none  of  it  to  New  England,  and  but  little  to 
Europe.  Thus  the  South  was  able  to  buy  but  few  manu 
factured  articles  and  her  army  suffered  for  lack  of  materials 
for  carrying  on  the  war. 

329.  The  exciting  affair  of  the  Trent.  Early  in  the  war 
(1861),  the  Confederate  Government  appointed  two  com 
missioners,  Mason  and  Slidell,  to  go  to  France  and  England 
to  seek  the  aid  of  those  countries.  These  men  successfully 
ran  the  blockade  and  reached  Cuba,  where  they  embarked 
on  the  English  steamer  Trent.  But  Captain  Wilkes  of  the 
United  States  war-sloop  San  Jacinto  boarded  the  Trent 
and  made  prisoners  of  the  two  commissioners.  The  news 
of  this  proceeding  created  tremendous  excitement  both  in 

1  In  1860  the  South  raised  nearly  5, 400,000  bales  of  cotton.  Had  shebeen  able 
to  sell  a  cotton  crop  as  large  as  that,  in  Europe,  every  year  of  the  Civil  War,  she 
would  have  been  able  to  buy  over  there  all  the  war  material  she  could  use. 


354  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

England  and  America.  In  searching  a  British  vessel  and 
taking  prisoners  from  her,  Wilkes  had  done  just  what,  in 
1812,  we  had  objected  to  English  naval  officers  doing  on  our 
vessels.  Our  indignation  at  that  time  was  one  of  the  causes 
that  led  to  our  declaring  war  against  Great  Britain.  Most 
Northerners  now  insisted,  however,  that  Wilkes  had  acted 
rightly;  but  of  course  the  British  Government  was  very 
angry.  For  a  time  it  looked  as  though  we  should  soon  be 
fighting  Great  Britain  as  well  as  the  Confederacy,  which 
would  have  been  most  unfortunate.  But  President  Lincoln 
courageously  and  very  wisely  released  Mason  and  Slidell, 
and  the  trouble  at  once  ended. 

330.  How  Europeans  felt  toward  the  war.  In  giving  up 
the  commissioners  we  had  made  our  peace,  for  the  time,  with 
the  Government  of  Great  Britain.  Nevertheless  there  was 
a  strong  feeling  among  the  wealthy  and  governing  class  of 
Englishmen  in  favor  of  the  Confederacy.  The  fact  that  the 
Union  prevented  Southern  cotton  from  being  sent  to  Eng 
land  had  led  to  the  shutting-down  of  large  numbers  of 
cotton  mills  in  that  country.  This  had  seriously  hurt  the 
business  of  the  manufacturers,  who  naturally  did  not  feel 
kindly  toward  the  North.  The  Confederates  hoped  that 
because  so  many  English  middle-class  and  working  people 
were  thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  shutting-down  of 
the  cotton  mills,  they  also  might  favor  the  South  and  insist 
on  their  Government  breaking  the  blockade.  But  English 
men  of  this  sort  were  stoutly  opposed  to  human  slavery. 
They  declared  that  the  South  was  founded  on  that  system, 
and  for  this  reason  they  would  do  nothing  to  help  her.  The 
Government  at  London  did  not  dare  to  oppose  their  wishes ; 
so  the  only  help  that  the  Confederates  received  in  England 
was  a  laxness  in  enforcing  neutrality  laws  and  the  allowing 
of  war -vessels  to  be  bought,  outfitted,  and  sheltered  in  her 
ports. 

The  French  Government  was  as  much  opposed  to  the 
North  as  were  the  wealthy  men  of  England.  Russia,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  friendly  to  the  Union. 


THE  BATTLES  OF   1861   AND   1862  355 

331.  Confederate  privateers.    Not  being  able  to  obtain 
help  from  Europe  to  break  the  Union  blockade,  the  Confed 
erates  resorted  to  the  practice  of  authorizing  privateers  to 
assist  their  cruisers  in  attacking  Northern  merchant  craft 
at  sea.    Many  of  these  privateers  and  cruisers  were  bought 
and  equipped  in  Europe,  and  when  closely  pursued   by 
Union  war-vessels  they  retired  for  safety  to  neutral  ports. 
Prominent  among  the  Confederate  cruisers  were  the  Sumter, 
the  Shenandoah,  the  Florida,  and  the  Alabama,  which  cap 
tured  and  destroyed  many  valuable  vessels  and  cargoes.1 

332.  Fighting  in  the  East,  1862.  The  strong  attempt  of 
the  Union  army  to  capture  Richmond,  and  the  equally 
strong  attempt  of  the  Confeder 
ates  to  take  Washing  ton,  caused 

most  of  the  fighting  on  the  At 
lantic  Slope,  during  the  war, 
to  be  done  in  Virginia.  The 
Confederate  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia  was  commanded  in  per 
son  by  General  Lee.  The  Union 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  which 
faced  Lee's  forces,  was  at  first 
under  the  leadership  of  General 
McClellan,  a  young,  dashing,  and 
well-trained  officer.  „  STONEWALL  ••  JACKSON 

In  the  spring  and  early  sum 
mer  of  1862  McClellan  marched  southward  through  great 
swamps,  across  swollen  rivers,  and  often  knee-deep  in  mud, 
until  he  was  but  four  miles  distant  from  Richmond.  But 
in  the  remarkable  Seven  Days'  battles  Lee  was  the  victor, 
and  the  Union  volunteers  withdrew  hastily  toward  Washing 
ton.  The  national  capital  had  for  some  time  been  menaced 
by  Stonewall  Jackson,  who  was  conducting  a  series  of  bril 
liant  raids  through  the  Shenandoah  Valley  and  destroying 

1  The  Alabama  ranged  the  seas  for  nearly  two  years  and  captured  fifty-seven 
Northern  merchant  ships.  She  was  finally  sunk  by  the  Union  warship  Kearsarge 
(June  19,  1864),  off  the  French  harbor  of  Cherbourg.  In  all,  the  North  lost 
two  hundred  arid  fifty-eight  vessels  to  Confederate  cruisers. 


356  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

supplies  of  every  sort  that  might  be  of  value  to  the  Union 
army. 

Jackson's  operations,  and  the  withdrawal  of  McClellan 
to  oppose  them,  greatly  encouraged  Lee.  Believing  that 
Richmond  could  now  safely  be  left  to  the  protection  of  her 
long  lines  of  batteries,  he  moved  northward,  toward  Union 
territory.  In  August  occurred  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  in  which  Jackson  still  further  humbled  the  Federal 
troops.  Lee  then  advanced  into  Maryland,  with  the  hope 
of  forcing  that  Border  State  to  join  the  Confederacy.  But 
after  the  great  battle  of  Antietam,  or  Sharpsburg,  on  Sep 
tember  17,  in  which  each  side  lost  about  12,000  men,1  Lee 
slowly  retreated  into  Virginia,  disappointed  at  the  failure 
of  his  raid. 

Meanwhile  McClellan  had  become  unpopular  because  he 
had  not  prevented  Lee  from  advancing  quite  near  to  Wash 
ington.  He  was  therefore  succeeded  by 
General  Burnside,  who  boldly  attacked 
Lee  at  the  heights  of  Fredericksburgr 
December  13,  on  the  Rappahannock 
River.  But  Lee  had  so  securely  de 
fended  himself  there  that  he  was  able 
to  repulse  his  enemy,  although  with 
terrible  loss  to  both  sides.  The  two 
opposing  armies  in  Virginia  were  now, 

THE  CONFEDERATE      at  t^ie  c^ose  °^  tne  year,  in  about  the 
BATTLE-FLAG  same  position  they  occupied  at  the 

commencement  of  the  war. 
333.  Duel  between  the   Monitor  and  Merrirnac.  The 

Union  vessels  engaged  in  blockading  the  Southern  coast 

1  "Losses"  in  battle  include  killed,  wounded, and  missing.  Generally, thegreat 
part  of  the  missing  are  taken  prisoners  by  the  enemy. 

Fox's  Regimental  Losses  in  the  Civil  War  says:  "Antietam  was  the  bloodiest 
battle.  More  men  were  killed  on  that  day  than  on  any  other  day  of  the  war. 
There  were  greater  battles,  with  greater  loss  of  life,  but  they  were  not  fought 
out  in  one  day  as  at  Antietam.  .  .  .  [It]  commenced  at  sunrise,  and  by  four 
o'clock  that  afternoon  it  was  over."  The  Confederate  historians  do  not  con 
sider  that  Antietam  was  a  Union  victory;  they  say  that  the  result  was  indecisive 
—  but  as  Lee  was  now  obliged  to  give  up  his  northward  raid,  the  advantage  lay 
with  the  Union  armv. 


THE  BATTLES  OF   1861   AND    1862 


357 


had  their  principal  rendezvous  at  Hampton  Roads,  a  spa 
cious  and  sheltered  harbor  near  Norfolk,  Virginia.  In  March, 
1862,  there  were  gathered  here  a  large  fleet  of  the  best  of  these 
blockaders.  All  of  them  were  made  of  wood,  for  up  to 
this  time  nearly  every  shipbuilder  in  the  world  thought 
that  wood  was  the  only  material  that  he  could  use  for  this 
purpose. 

The  Union  forces  had  abandoned  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard, 
leaving  there  a  virtually  sunken  vessel,  the  Merrimac.1 
The  Confederates  raised  her,  cut  away  the  masts,  coated  her 
with  a  double  layer 
of  sheets  of  iron,  and 
armed  her  with  a 
great  ram  and  fif 
teen  cannon.  Thus 
fortified,  the  Merri 
mac  steamed  forth 
to  attack  the  Union 
ships  that  lay  at  an 
chor  in  the  Roads. 
She  is  said  to  have 
resembled  the  roof 
of  a  barn  floating  on 
the  water.  Thunder 
ous  volleys  of  cannon  balls  were  poured  upon  this  strange 
monster  of  the  deep,  but  they  had  no  effect  upon  her  stout 
iron  sides,  and  during  the  day  one  of  the  best  vessels  in  the 
fleet  fell  a  victim  to  her  deadly  ram.  She  retired  at  night 
fall,  but  returned  next  day,  her  commander  fully  expecting 
to  sink  several  other  Northern  ships  and  thus  weaken  the 
blockade  which  shut  in  the  South  like  a  great  stone  wall. 

But  he  was  now  unexpectedly  met  by  a  peculiar  little 
craft  that  at  once  challenged  him  to  battle.  Her  level  iron 
deck  hardly  rose  above  the  water,  and  in  the  center  of  this 
deck  was  a  revolving  iron  turret,  looking  much  like  a  great 


nting  by  Hawaii,  In  the  Capitol 
THE   MONITOR   AND  THE    MERRIMAC 

The  first  fight  between  ironclads.  Both  vessels  had  features 
which  were  developed  and  perfected  in  warships  of  later 
years.  —  the  Monitor's  revolving  turret  and  the  Merrlmac's 
armored  casement  and  ram  bow 


1  The  Southerners  renamed  her  "  Virginia  ";  but  historians  usually  give  her 
the  old  name  in  their  accounts  of  the  duel. 


358  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

cheese-box,  and  carrying  two  cannon.  This  was  the  Monitor, 
which  had  recently  been  invented  by  John  Ericsson.1  She 
had  secretly  arrived  from  New  York  during  the  night. 
Through  five  long  and  exciting  hours  the  fight  between  the 
two  ironclads  was  breathlessly  watched  by  the  anxious 
crews  of  the  Union  fleet  and  by  great  crowds  on  the  shores. 
It  was  a  strange  duel,  as  they  fought  fiercely  at  close  quar 
ters,  the  Merrimac  once  attempting  to  ram  her  adversary, 
while  the  air  quivered  with  the  roar  of  bursting  shells  and 
the  deafening  clang  of  hammered  iron.  The  Merrimac  had 
met  her  match  in  the  Monitor.  Neither  could  conquer  the 
other;  but  the  Merrimac,  damaged  by  running  aground  and 
having  lost  her  ram,  finally  withdrew,  and  the  Union  fleet 
was  saved. 

This  celebrated  battle  in  Hampton  Roads  hastened  a 
change  in  the  construction  of  every  navy  in  the  civilized 
world.  It  was  now  seen  that  the  old  wooden  ships,  which 
for  centuries  had  fought  the  great  sea  battles  of  the  world, 
hereafter  stood  no  chance  against  ironclads.2  Ever  since 
then  war-vessels  have  been  heavily  armored  with  iron  or 
steel. 

334.  Fighting  in  the  West,  1862.  In  the  West  the  cam 
paign  of  1862  opened  with  the  Union  army,  the  larger  part 
of  which  was  commanded  by  General  Halleck,  facing  the 
south  along  a  line  whose  principal  points  were  Paducah 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  River,  Cairo  at  the  junc 
tion  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  and  St.  Louis.  Halleck 
hoped  to  capture  the  valleys  of  the  Cumberland  and  the  Ten 
nessee  and  all  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  lying  south  of  Cairo. 

To  protect  these  valleys  from  the  proposed  Federal  ad 
vance  the  Confederates  had  a  line  of  troops  extending  from 
the  Kentucky  towns  of  Mill  Spring  and  Bowling  Green  to 
Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland  River,  and  Fort  Henry, 
on  the  Tennessee,  thence  over  to  Columbus,  New  Madrid, 
and  Island  Number  10,  in  the  Mississippi. 

1  Ericsson  also  invented  the  hot-air  engine  and  the  screw  propeller. 

2  A  few  ironclad  ships  had,  before  this,  been  built  in  Europe  as  experiments. 


THE   BATTLES  OF   1861   AND   1862  359- 

General  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  who  at  that  time  was  one  of 
Halleck's  subordinates,  soon  captured  Fort  Henry.  He  then 
marched  up  the  valley  of  the  Cumberland  and  attacked 
Fort  Donelson.  After  a  gallant  defense  its  commander  asked 
the  Union  general  what  terms  he  would  give  to  the  garrison 
if  it  hauled  down  its  flag.  Grant's  reply  became  famous: 


Contemporary  engraving 

UNION  GUNBOATS  AND  MORTAR  BOATS  IN  ACTION  ON  THE 
MISSISSIPPI  RIVER 

"  No  terms  except  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender 
can  be  accepted.  I  propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your 
works."  1  Fort  Donelson  fell  into  Grant's  hands  on  Feb 
ruary  1 6,  with  12,000  to  15,000  prisoners  and  large  supplies 
of  war  material. 

After  this,  Grant  returned  to  the  Tennessee  River  and  on 
April  6-7  fought  a  terrible  battle  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  or 
Shiloh,2  with  the  able  Confederate  general,  Albert  S.  John 
ston.  Johnston  was  killed,  and  his  army  was  obliged  to 
retire  southward.  The  losses  in  this  engagement  were  so 
appalling  that  the  people  of  the  entire  country,  both  North 

1  U.  S.  Grant  was  thereafter  fondly  called  (because  of  his  initials),  "Uncon 
ditional  Surrender"  Grant. 

?  Some  of  the  heaviest  fighting  occurred  around  Shiloh  Church,  two  milesi 
from  Pittsburg  Landing,  therefore  many  historians  call  it  the  battle  of  Shiloh. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 

and  South,  were  greatly  shocked.  They  were  now  at  last 
coming  to  realize  what  a  terrible  thing  war  is. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Federals,  under  General  Thomas, 
were  in  possession  of  all  Kentucky  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Tennessee.  As  for  New  Madrid  and  Island  Number  10, 
they  also  fell  after  a  long  and  severe  siege  by  Union  gunboats  ; 
and  Corinth  and  Memphis  likewise  came  into  possession 
of  the  North. 

Thus  the  Confederate  line  in  the  West  had  been  thrust 
southward  for  a  long  distance,1  and  Federal  vessels  could 
now  navigate  the  Mississippi  River  as  far  down  as  Vicks- 
burg.  But  below  that  place  the  great  waterway  was  for  a 
long  distance  strongly  guarded  by  Confederate  forts. 

335.  The  Federals  capture  New  Orleans.  New  Orleans 
is  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the  sea.  Seventy-five  miles 
below  the  city  the  Confederates  guarded  the  Mississippi 
River  by  two  well-built  forts,  situated  on  opposite  banks. 
Below  the  forts  great  iron  chains  extended  across  the  river  to 
prevent  Union  vessels  from  ascending  the  stream;  above 
the  forts  lay  a  fleet  of  fifteen  river  vessels,  heavily  armed. 
Southerners  supposed  that  New  Orleans  was  in  this  way 
thoroughly  protected  against  capture  by  the  Union  navy. 
But  in  April,  1862,  a  powerful  fleet  of  eighty-two  Union 
ships,  under  the  brave  and  skillful  Captain  Farragut,2  gal 
lantly  forced  its  way  through  the  chains,  overcame  the 
forts,  captured  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  landed  an  army  of 
15,000  men  in  New  Orleans. 

This  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Confederacy,  for  now  both 
the  lower  and  upper  portions  of  the  Mississippi  River,  the 

1  In  the  last  days  of  die  year  (December  31,  1862,  to  January  2,  1863),  Union 
forces  who  were  chasing  the  Confederates  through  Tennessee  dealt  them  a 
serious  blow  at  Murfreesboro  (or  Stone's  River),  where  for  three  days  a  fierce 
battle  was  waged.   The  total  losses  of  both  sides  amounted  to  nearly  25,000, 
almost  a  fourth  of  all  the  men  in  the  fight. 

2  David  Glasgow  Farragut  was  born  in  Tennessee  in  1801,  and  when  only 
nine  years  old  became  a  midshipman  in  the  navy.    He  served  with  credit  in  the 
War  of  1812,  and  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War 
was  put  in  command  of  the  Union  squadron  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.   After  his 
brilliant  success  at  New  Orleans  he  was  made  an  admiral.    He  died  in  1870, 
after  sixty  years  of  continuous  naval  service. 


THE  EMANCIPATION   PROCLAMATION          361 

main  avenue  to  the  interior  of  the  continent,  were  in  Federal 
hands.  The  strongholds  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson,with 
their  batteries  planted  on  high  bluffs  beyond  the  reach  of 
Farragut's  cannon,  alone  stood  unconquered;  they  were  the 
sole  tie  connecting  the  Confederates  west  of  the  Mississippi 
with  their  brethren  to  the  east.  But  until  land  forces  could 


Painting  bj/  Carpenter,  in  the  Capitol 

THE  CABINET   DISCUSSING   THE  EMANCIPATION   PROCLAMATION 

President  Lincoln 


Stanton       Chase 
(War)     (Treasury) 


Welles        Smith   Se ward  (seated)         Hlair  Hates 

CSavy)    (Interior)      (State)  (Postmaster-    (Attorney- 

General)        General) 


also  be  brought  against  them,  the  Union  naval  officers 
thought  it  best  not  to  attempt  their  capture. 

336.  President  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation. 
Lincoln  was  strongly  opposed  to  slavery.  However,  like 
most  Northerners,  he  had  before  the  war  been  ready  to 
do  almost  anything  to  please  the  South  and  keep  the 
Union  together,  provided  that  slavery  was  not  extended 
into  the  new  Territories  and  States  of  the  West.1  Even 
after  the  war  began  he  asked  Congressmen  from  those  slave 

i  The  President  wrote  in  August,  1862,  to  Horace  Greeley,a  New  York  news 
paper  editor:  "  My  paramount  object  in  this  struggle  is  to  save  the  Union  ^and. 
it  is  not  either  to  save  or  to  destroy  slavery  " ;  but  he  added  that  it  was  his  ott- 
^xpressed  personal  wish  that  all  men  everywhere  could  be  free." 


362  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

States  that  had  remained  loyal  to  the  Union  to  advise  their 
fellow  citizens  to  sell  their  slaves,  on  condition  that  the 
Federal  Government  pay  $300  apiece  for  them.  But  this 
request  was  not  heeded.1 

Most  of  the  blacks  remained  at  home  with  their  masters' 
families  during  the  war,  and  worked  for  and  protected 
them.  Nevertheless,  large  crowds  of  dissatisfied  slaves 
escaped  into  the  Union  lines.  Had  the  Northern  generals 
ordered  them  to  return  home,  they  would  have  been  used 
in  raising  food  crops  for  the  Confederates.  It  seemed  best, 
therefore,  to  declare  them  to  be  "contraband  "  of  war 
like  food  and  other  supplies  intended  for  the  enemy.  Large 
numbers  of  these  so-called  contrabands  were  set  to  work 
for  the  Union  army.2  This  was  the  first  step  toward  freeing 
the  slaves. 

A  second  step  was  not  long  in  coming.  The  President 
and  other  thoughtful  Northern  statesmen  realized  that 
slavery  had  been  the  real  cause  of  this  terrible  quarrel  be 
tween  the  North  and  the  South.  They  said  that  some  time 
it  surely  must  be  abolished,  or  the  two  sections  could  never 
again  live  together  happily.  That  "  some  time  "  was  hast 
ened  by  the  discontent  that  had  arisen  in  Europe  because 
the  Union  blockade  prevented  Southern  cotton  from  reach 
ing  the  mills  of  England  and  France.  Something  must  be 
done  to  keep  these  countries  from  helping  the  Confederacy. 
If  the  Union  should  favor  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  America, 
the  common  people  of  Europe,  most  of  whom  detested  hu 
man  bondage,  would  not  allow  their  governments  to  assist 
the  slaveholders. 

At  that  time  there  was  nothing  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  forbidding  men  to  own  slaves.  In  times  of 
peace  neither  the  President  nor  Congress  has  any  authority 
to  take  away  a  man's  property  without  paying  him  for 
it.  Yet  if  the  Federal  Government  freed  the  slaves  it  would 

1  In  April,  1862,  acting  on  his  advice,  Congress  agreed  to  a  money  compensa 
tion,  and  paid  a  million  dollars  to  slave  owners  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
the  Territories. 

2  Later,  negro  regiments  were  enlisted,  to  serve  in  the  army  of  the  North. 


THE  EMANCIPATION   PROCLAMATION         363 

be  the  same  thing  as  unlawfully  confiscating  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  private  property. 

However,  the  President  is  also  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  nation.  In  times  of  grave  public 
danger  that  officer  has  to  be  given  great  powers.  Lin 
coln  decided  that  it  was  "  a  fit  and  necessary  war  meas 
ure"  to  set  all  the  slaves  in  the  South  free.  Acting  as 
commander-in-chief,  and  not  as  President,  he  startled  the 
world  by  issuing  in  September,  1862,  an  Emancipation  Pro 
clamation.1  Its  intent  was  to  destroy  the  property  of  the 
enemy  and  thus  to  cripple  the  Confederacy,  which  depended 
so  largely  on  slave  labor.  This  famous  document  declared 
that  on  the  following  New  Year's  Day,  "  all  persons  held  as 
slaves"  within  the  Confederate  States  "shall  be  then,  thence 
forward,  and  forever  free."  Negroes  running  away  from 
their  Southern  masters  were  now  sure  of  protection  within 
the  lines  of  the  Union  army.  As  fast  as  Confederate  ter 
ritory  was  captured  by  the  Federal  troops,  all  of  its  negroes 
at  once  became  "freedmen."  2 

The  proclamation  had  the  effect  on  Europe  that  had  been 
expected.  It  created  among  the  common  people  of  the 
Old  World  a  strong  sympathy  for  the  Union.  No  longer 
was  there  any  talk  there  of  helping  the  slaveholding  Con 
federacy.  In  the  North  there  was  at  first  some  opposition ; 
but  gradually  the  people  of  that  section  came  to  look  on  the 
war  as  a  gigantic  crusade  against  human  bondage  in 
America.  This  high  moral  purpose  gave  new  strength  to 
the  soldiers  of  the  North. 

1  The  original  draft  of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  in  President  Lincoln's 
own  hand,  was  presented  by  him  to  the  Northwestern  Sanitary  Fair,  held  at 
Chicago  in  October,  1863,  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick  and  needy  soldiers.   Later, 
this  priceless  paper  came  into  possession  of  the  Chicago  ^Historical  Society, 
and  was  burned  in  the  great  Chicago  fire  in  1871.  The  official  copy  of  the  Pro 
clamation,  that  was  actually  signed  by  the  President,  ready  for  publishing,  is 
now  owned  by  the  New  York  State  Department  of  Education  at  Albany. 

2  The  proclamation  did  not  apply  to  the  Border  States,  whose  slaveholders 
kept  their  blacks  until  either  the  States  themselves  or  the  Thirteenth  Amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution  abolished  the  system. 


364 


THE   CIVIL  WAR 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 


1.  On  an  outline  map  note  and  fill  in  from  day  to  day  the  places  men 
tioned  in  the  text  relating  to  the  campaign  in  the  West;  in  the  East. 

2.  Prove  that  Lincoln  was  right  in  the  Mason  and  Slidell  affair.    What 
kind  of  courage  did  he  show  in  making  his  decision?    Mention  other 
instances  in  our  history  of  similar  courage  on  the  part  of  public  men. 

3.  Fill  in  the  following  outlines:  — 

/.  In  the  East 


Chief  Battles 

Northern  Leaders 

Southern  Leaders 

Result 

II.  In  the  West 


Chief  Battles 

Northern  Leaders 

Southern  Leaders 

Result 

4.  Which  section,  the  North  or  the  South,  suffered  the  most  from  the 
war?  Why  do  you  think  so? 

5.  In   his  first  inaugural  address  Lincoln  said,  "I  have  no  purpose,  di 
rectly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the 
States  where  it  exists.    I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so,  and 
I  have  no  inclination  to  do  so."   Why,  then,  did  he  issue  the  Emanci 
pation  Proclamation?    By  what  right  did  he  do  it? 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  After  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  a  Northern  soldier  wrote  a  letter  home 
giving  an  account  of  the  battle  and  expressing  a  sincere  admiration  for 
the  training  and  courage  of  the  Southern  soldier.   Write  such  a  letter. 

2.  Wrrite  an  editorial  that  an  anti-slavery  man  of  the  North  might  have 
written  to  a  newspaper  after  the  Emancipation  Proclamation;  also 
one  that  a  slave  owner  might  have  written. 

3.  A  man  from  the  roof  of  a  building  near  the  shore  of  Hampton  Roads 
saw  the  duel  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac.    Write  the  let 
ter  he  might  have  written  describing  the  scene. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863  AND  1864;  THE  CONFEDERACY  IS 
SPLIT   IN   TWO 

337.  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  During  the  win 
ter  of  1862-63  Lee  remained  in  Fredericksburg.  To  the 
north  of  him  was  encamped  the  Union  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
which  was  now  commanded  by  General  Hooker,  a  daring 
officer  whom  his  men  proudly  called  "  Fighting  Joe  Hooker." 


^Br 


yjjjjjmf^, 
''^jjg/F^' 


From  a  contemporary  engraving 

THE  BATTLE  OF  GETTYSBURG 

In  the  spring  of  1863  Hooker  advanced  southward  to  meet 
the  enemy.  He  crossed  the  Rappahannock  River  above 
Fredericksburg,  but  met  defeat  in  the  great  battle  of  Chan 
cellorsville  (May  1-5),  and  was  obliged  to  return  to  the 
north  bank  of  the  river.  Although  the  victory  was  with  the 
Confederates,  they  suffered  a  very  severe  loss  in  the  death 


366  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

•of  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson,  who  was  one  of  the  best  of  Lee's 
.generals. 

Lee  was  encouraged  by  this  success  over  Hooker's  army, 
and  a  month  after  the  engagement  at  Chancellorsville  he 
set  out  to  invade  the  North.  Crossing  the  Potomac  River 
with  75»ooo  men,  Lee  pushed  past  the  Army  of  the  Poto 
mac  and  hoped  to  reach  Philadelphia  by  way  of  Harrisburg. 
In  his  path,  however,  lay  the  little  Pennsylvania  village 
of  Gettysburg  which  controlled  the  roads  between  him  and 
his  supplies  on  the  Potomac.  Here  he  was  confronted  by 
General  Meade,  who  had  succeeded  Hooker  as  the  leader 
-of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  A  three  days'  battle  followed 
(July  1-3),  to  decide  whether  Lee  or  Meade  should  occupy 
Gettysburg. 

Both  Northern  and  Southern  armies  were  then  composed 
of  well-equipped  and  finely  trained  and  experienced  soldiers. 
The  fighting  was  probably  the  most  severe  —  it  certainly 
was  the  most  deadly  —  of  the  entire  war.  The  climax  came 
in  the  afternoon  of  the  last  day.  Fifteen  thousand  Confeder 
ates  under  General  Pickett  formed  in  the  shape  of  an  enor 
mous  wedge.  With  a  mighty  rush  they  swept  across  a  mile 
of  open  space  and  sought  to  dislodge  from  an  opposite  hill 
a  great  body  of  Union  troops  headed  by  General  Hancock. 
The  charging  mass  of  gallant  men  in  gray  was  torn  by  round 
after  round  of  artillery  fire,  and  by  repeated  rifle- volleys. 
Pickett's  ranks  quickly  melted  under  this  terrible  onslaught. 
Nevertheless  many  Confederates  reached  the  hill,  some  of 
them  even  forcing  their  way  through  the  Union  lines.  But 
from  the  fierce  hand-to-hand  struggle  which  followed  few 
emerged  alive,  and  most  of  them  became  prisoners  to  the 
Union  army  which  had  so  stubbornly  held  its  ground.1 

The  South  had  gone  into  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  with 
the  fullest  hopes  of  victory.  Her  prospect  for  success  had 
never  been  quite  so  bright  as  on  the  morning  of  July  I ;  the 
tide  of  the  Confederacy  was  then  at  its  height.  But  on 

1  The  Union  loss  in  the  three  days'  fighting  was  about  23,000;  the  Con 
federate,  about  28,000. 


LINCOLN'S  GETTYSBURG  ADDRESS  367 

the  evening  of  the  third  day,  it  was  realized  that  the  tide  had 
ebbed,  and  might  never  turn.  The  Confederate  army  was 
hurled  back  into  Virginia,  and  never  again  sought  to  invade 
the  country  north  of  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line.1 

338.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address.  On  November  19, 
1863,  a  part  of  the  battlefield  of  Gettysburg  was  dedicated 
as  a  "  cemetery  wherein  to  bury  the  bodies  of  the  slain." 
Lincoln  was  present  and  delivered  the  following  short  ad 
dress.  It  instantaneously  affected  the  country,  whether 
people  were  educated  or  unlettered,  as  a  great  speech.  This 
impression  has  deepened  with  time,  and  the  address  will 
always  be  considered  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  Ameri 
can  eloquence:  — 

"  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  on 
this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated 
to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are 
engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any 
nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We  are 
met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  dedi 
cate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who 
here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a  larger  sense 
we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow  this 
ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have 
consecrated  it,  far  above  our  poor  power  to  add  or  detract.  The 
world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here,  but 
it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us  the  living, 
rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who 
fought  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us- 
to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that  from 
these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for 
which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion;  that  we  here 

1  After  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  the  Federal  Government  needed  more 
.oldiers  and  sought  to  get  them  by  forcing  into  the  service  some  of  those  citizens 
who  had  not  volunteered.  This  was  done  by  a  system  of  selection  by  lot, 
called  "the  draft."  This  first  draft  led  to  violent  disturbances,  the  worst  being 
in  New  York  City,  which  for  four  days,  in  the  middle  of  July,  1863,  was  con 
trolled  by  a  ruffianly  mob  who  robbed  houses  and  stores  and  threatened  the 
lives  of  negroes  and  Abolitionists.  The  riots  were  everywhere  put  down  with 
the  strong  hand  of  the  military. 

But  the  great  majority  in  both  Northern  and  Southern  armies  volunteered 
•willingly,  whenever  their  governments  issued  calls  for  additional  troops* 


368 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain;  — that 
this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom, — and 
that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people, 
shall  not  perish  from  the  earth." 

339.  The  capture  of  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson;  the 
Union  triumphs  on  the  Mississippi.  Let  us  now  turn  to  the 
campaign  of  1863  in  the  West,  where  the  Union  generals 

were  still  attempting  to  gain 
full  control  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  by  the  close  of  the  year 
1862  the  Federal  army  and 
navy  were  in  possession  of 
all  of  that  stream  above 
Vicksburg,  and  from  the 
Louisiana  town  of  Port  Hud 
son  southward  to  the  sea. 
But  between  these  two 
strongly  fortified  places  lay 
a  stretch  of  two  hundred 
miles  of  river  remaining  in 
the  hands  of  the  Confeder 
acy.  Across  this  strip  of 
territory  they  obtained  food 
for  their  army  from  the  rich 
farms  of  Louisiana,  Arkan 
sas,  and  Texas. 

Indeed,  there  came  to  Lee 
by  this  route  a  good  deal  of 
war  material  overland  from 
Mexico.  He  was  not  able  to  import  such  material  direct 
from  Europe  through  Southern  ports,  because  of  the  close 
watch  kept  over  the  Confederate  coast  by  the  Federal  navy; 
hence  this  back-door  journey  through  Central  America.  It 
was  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  Union  to  get  control 
of  the  entire  length  of  the  river  and  break  up  this  westward 
line  of  Confederate  communication. 


THE  FIELD   OF  THE  WESTERN 
CAMPAIGNS 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863  AND    1864 


369 


Vicksburg  was  the  principal  Southern  fortress  upon  the 
Mississippi;  it  was  called  the  "  Gibraltar  of  the  Confeder 
acy."  Early  in  the  spring  of  1863  Generals  Grant  and  Sher 
man  x  began  a  campaign  to  capture  this  stronghold.  They 
had  at  their  command  75,ooo  soldiers,  and  in  the  river  a 
fleet  of  ironclad  gunboats.  But  the  city  was  very  stoutly 
defended,  and  the 
task  of  conquering 
it  was  long  and  diffi 
cult. 

Day  by  day  and 
night  by  night,  for 
several  weeks  in  suc 
cession,  an  almost 
constant  storm  of  ex 
plosive  shells  poured 
into  Vicksburg  from 
the  Union  batteries 
and  vessels.  The  in 
habitants  and  the 
garrison  of  nearly 
30,000  men  made  a 
splendid  defense.  But 
at  the  end  of  June  the 
town  had  been  almost 
battered  to  pieces  by  the  terrible  bombardment,  and  the 
people  were  forced  to  live  in  caves  dug  out  of  the  hillside 
on  which  Vicksburg  is  built.  All  manner  of  supplies  were 
gone.  Even  the  newspapers  had  to  be  printed  on  the  back 
of  wall  paper.  The  horses  and  mules  had  been  eaten;  there 
was  no  meat  left,  except  for  those  who  were  willing  to  live 

1  General  William  Tecumseh  Sherman  was  a  native  of  Ohio,  born  in  1820. 
When  twenty  years  old  he  graduated  from  West  Point  and  became  an  artillery 
lieutenant.  After  serving  in  California  he  left  the  army  for  several  years, 
being  by  turns  banker,  lawyer,  and  street-railroad  president.  When  the  war 
broke  out  he  was  made  a  colonel,  but  soon  rose  to  be  a  major-general  (1862), 
He  aided  Grant  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  and  was  his  principal  assistant  in  the 
Vicksburg  campaign.  When  Grant  became  President,  Sherman  was  called  to 
be  head  of  the  army.  He  died  in  1891. 


A  VICKSBURG  NEWSPAPER 


Four  columns  were  printed  to  the  page.  Here  only  half  the 
paper  is  shown.  The  lower  part  is  folded  to  show  the  wall 
paper  on  which  the  news  was  printed 


370  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

on  cats,  dogs,  and  rats  —  save  that  the  soldiers  still  had  a 
little  pork  to  eat  with  the  one  cracker  a  day  that  was  allowed 
to  each  of  them.  There  was  now  nothing  to  do  except  starve 
or  surrender  to  the  besiegers.  Surrender  was  decided  on,  and 
this  took  place  on  the  morning  of  July  4,  the  day  following 
the  Confederate  defeat  at  Gettysburg. 

These  two  great  Union  victories  were  disastrous  blows  to 
the  Confederacy.  They  came  so  closely  upon  each  other  as 
to  cause  a  joyful  "  Fourth  "  in  the  North,  but  in  the  South 
it  was  a  very  sorrowful  one.  Four  days  later  Port  Hudson 
also  surrendered.  At  last  the  Mississippi  River  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth  had  become  a  Union  highway.  The 
States  west  of  that  stream  could  never  after  give  much  aid 
to  the  cause  of  secession.  The  Confederacy  had  been  split  in 
twain. 

340.  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga.  But  the  capture 
of  the  Mississippi  River  was  only  a  part  of  the  great  Union 
campaign  for  splitting  the  Confederacy  in  two,  from  north 
to  south.   The  Confederates  still  held  the  upper  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  Tennessee,  and  with  it  the  mountain  passes  ly 
ing  to  the  east  of  that  river.  Chattanooga,  which  lies  among 
the  hills  of  southern  Tennessee,  was  even  then  an  important 
town.   It  was  the  principal  place  in  that  region,  and  a  Con 
federate  stronghold.     From  it  several  highways  and  rail 
roads  ran  southward  through  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy 
and  eastward  into  Virginia.   Over  these  roads  the  Confeder 
ates  sent  men,  food,  and  supplies  from  west  of  the  Alle 
gheny  Mountains  into  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  to  help 
the  army  of  the  South.  From  Chattanooga,  also,  they  could 
and  did  raid  and  destroy  the  farms  and  towns  in  eastern  Ken 
tucky  and  Tennessee,  where  there  were  many  families  that 
remained  friendly  to  the  Union.     It  was,  therefore,  very 
important  to  the  Union  that  Chattanooga  should  be  cap 
tured  ;  not  only  to  stop  the  Confederates  from  using  it,  but 
that  it  might  serve  the  Northern  army  as  a  center  from  which 
to  raid  the  interior  of  the  Confederacy. 

The  campaign  against  Chattanooga  was  placed  in  charge 


THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  1863  AND   1864 

of  General  Rosecrans.  With  him  were  several  able  subor 
dinates  —  Generals  Thomas,  Sherman,  and  Hooker.  The 
leader  of  the  Southern  forces  was  General  Bragg.  He  was 
soon  driven  out  of  Chattanooga  itself ;  but  he  heavily  forti 
fied  the  neighboring  heights  of  Lookout  Mountain  and 
Missionary  Ridge,  and  for  a  long  time  remained  master  of 
the  situation. 

The  first  really  great  battle  of  the  campaign  took  place 
at  Chickamauga  (September  19-20),  twelve  miles  to  the 
east  of  Chat 
tanooga.  Here 
Rosecrans  and 
Thomas  'met  a 
much  larger  body 
than  their  own, 
and  were  badly 
defeated  in  one 
of  the  fiercest  en 
gagements  fought 
during  the  war. 
The  Union  loss 
would  have  been 
far  greater  had 
not  Thomas  stood 
firm  and  protect 
ed  the  rear  of  the 
column  as  it  re 
treated.  He  did 

this  so  effectively  that  he  well  earned  the  famous  nickname 
which  he  bore  ever  after,  "The  Rock  of  Chickamauga." 

The  Union  forces  now  returned  to  Chattanooga,  where 
Bragg  kept  them  shut  up  for  two  months.  But  reinforce 
ments,  food,  and  clothing  soon  poured  in  to  them  from  the 
North  and  West,  and  Grant  arrived  personally  to  direct  the 
defense.  By  the  last  week  in  November  Grant  was  strong 
enough  to  attack  the  enemy.  This  he  did  with  great  vigor. 
Hooker  was  sent  with  a  part  of  the  army  to  drive  the  Con- 


Photograph  by  Brady 

INFLATING  A  WAR-BALLOON 

Balloons  were  occasionally  used  during  the  Civil  War  for  making 
observations.  At  the  present  day,  aeroplanes  would  be  used.  Com 
pare  the  illustration  on  page  ii  at  the  back  of  the  book. 


372  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

federates  from  Lookout  Mountain.  It  was  a  hard  scram 
ble  for  the  Union  soldiers  up  the  steep  and  rugged  slopes, 
which  were  strewn  with  great  boulders  and  gullied  by  deep 
ravines.  But  little  by  little  they  fought  their  way  up,  in  the 
face  of  a  desperate  resistance  by  the  Confederates.  Much  of 
the  time  the  contestants  were  hidden  from  each  other  in 
the  thick  cloud  of  mist  which  hung  upon  the  mountain-side. 
But  emerging  from  this,  as  they  climbed,  the  men  in  blue 
dealt  their  last  blows  in  the  clear  upper  air,  with  the  masses 
of  cloud  far  below  them.  That  night  their  camp-fires  dotted 
the  summit  and  sides  of  Lookout  Mountain,  a  sign  to  the 
armies  encamped  in  the  valley  below  that  Hooker  had 
won  in  the  "  Battle  above  the  Clouds." 

The  next  day  other  Union  troops  made  a  brilliant  charge 
up  the  face  of  Missionary  Ridge  and  drove  the  Confederates 
over  into  Georgia.  Thus  the  year  1863  ended  in  the  West 
with  the  Confederate  line  pushed  far  southward  of  where  it 
was  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Both  east  and  west,  the 
cause  of  secession  was  rapidly  losing  strength. 

341.  The  "  Hammering  Campaign."  By  this  time  Grant 
had  proved  himself  the  ablest  of  the  Union  generals.   In  the 
spring  of  1864  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  all  the  Federal 
troops.  Sherman  was  given  charge  of  the  army  in  the  West, 
which  was  now  100,000  strong,  while  Grant  himself  went 
to  the  East  to  confront  Lee,  and  if  possible  to  capture  Rich 
mond.    He  had  under  him  120,000  men,  or  about  double 
the  number  that  served  under  Lee. 

Grant  and  Sherman  began  their  operations  for  this  year 
with  an  agreement  between  themselves  that  hereafter,  no 
matter  what  happened,  they  would  keep  "  hammering  "  at 
the  foe.  They  were  convinced  that  only  by  thus  patiently 
destroying  the  Confederate  armies  little  by  little,  as  fast  as 
possible,  could  the  war  be  brought  to  an  end.  This  is  why 
their  movements  in  1864  and  1865  are  called  the  "  Hammer 
ing  Campaign." 

342.  Grant  fighting  in  the  Wilderness.   Grant  made  the 
first  move  in  this  campaign.  Early  in  May,  1864,  he  began 


THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863  AND    1864 


373. 


to  advance  with  his  forces  toward  Richmond.   His  path  lay 
through  a  wild,  gloomy,  thinly  settled  region  of  sand  and 
scrubby  trees  lying  south  and  east  of  the  Rapidan  River, 
and  commonly  known  as  "  The  Wilderness."  The  great  man 
said  but  little,  but  he  was  cool-headed  and  deliberate  in 
thought,   and    wonder 
fully  quick   in    action. 
For  two  weeks  he  was 
persistently      attacked 
by  some  of  the  best  gen 
erals  in  Lee's  small  but 
well-disciplined     army, 
and  only  by  the  greatest 
skill  did  he  save  him 
self  and  his  men  from 
defeat. 

After  emerging  from 
the  Wilderness  his  pro-  £J 
gress  toward  Richmond 
was  so  bitterly  opposed 
that  Grant  was  forced 
to  fight  some  of  the 
bloodiest  battles  of  the 
war  —  Spottsylvania 
Court  House  (May  8- 
18)  and  Cold  Harbor 
(June  3).  Both  of  these 
were  won  by  the  Confed 
erates,  but  the  loss  to  each  army  was  appalling.  However, 
the  plucky  Union  leader  was  not  shaken  from  his  purpose  of 
"hammering."  Said  he,  "I  ...  propose  to  fight  it  out  on 
this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer."  And  he  was  true  to  his  word. 

But  Grant  found  that  Lee  had  thoroughly  protected 
Richmond  against  any  attack  from  the  north.  Thereupon 
he  suddenly  shifted  his  position  and  swung  around  to 
Petersburg,  which  is  twenty-three  miles  south  of  the  Con 
federate  capital.  This  place  also  was  found  to  be  strongly 


Copyright,  M.  P.  Rict 
GENERAL  ULYSSES   SIMPSON   GRANT 

From  a  photograph  of  1864 


374  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

fortified  by  the  enemy.  There  was  now  nothing  else  to  do 
but  to  lay  regular  siege  to  it.  This  proved  to  be  a  long  and 
hazardous  undertaking.  It  lasted  through  eight  weary  but 
exciting  months. 

343.  Sherman's  great  march  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea. 
The  Union  forces  had  in  1863  opened  the  entire  length  of 
the  Mississippi  River  to  the  use  of  Northern  vessels.  They 
had  also  thrust  the  enemy  out  of  all  of  the  Western  country 
north  of  Georgia.  The  next  movement  in  the  Union  pro 
gramme  must  be  the  sending  of  an  army  through  the  heart 
of  the  South,  from  the  west  to  the  east,  and  thus  again 
cut  the  Confederacy  in  two,  along  another  line. 

It  had  been  arranged  between  Grant  and  Sherman  that 
when  Grant  entered  the  Wilderness  on  his  way  to  Rich 
mond  he  was  to  telegraph  to  Sherman,  and  then  the  latter 
would  also  begin  his  advance  southward.  When  Grant's 
telegram  arrived,  Sherman  set  forth.  After  a  long  and 
bloody  campaign  he  took  Atlanta  on  September  2,  1864^ 
This  was  the  principal  manufacturing  city  of  the  Confed 
eracy.  He  destroyed  all  of  its'  shops,  mills,  and  factories,  and 
thereby  deprived  the  South  of  one  of  its  chief  sources  oi 
strength. 

Some  ten  weeks  later,  about  the  middle  of  November,  after 
breaking  up  the  retreating  Confederate  army,  Sherman 
started  from  Atlanta  on  his  famous  march  southeastward 
to  Savannah-  "  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea."  His  object  in 
making  this  long  raid  was  not  only  to  sever  the  Confederacy, 
but  to  create  through  the  center  of  the  seceding  States  "  a 
broad  area  of  desolation  "  in  which  the  Southern  troops 
could  not  exist.  Sherman  suspected  that  the  authorities 
in  Washington  might  seek  to  interfere  with  his  operations, 
so  he  destroyed  the  telegraph  wires  and  railroad  lines  con 
necting  his  army  with  the  North.  His  column  thus  "  de 
tached  itself  from  all  friends,"  and  for  food  and  supplies 
was  entirely  dependent  on  the  country  through  which  it 
marched. 

1  He  telegraphed  to  the  President,  "Atlanta  is  ours,  and  fairly  won." 


THE  CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863  AND   1864 


375 


Sherman's  raiders  numbered  62,000  seasoned  veterans, 
horsemen  and  infantry.  In  marching  "  through  Georgia, 
smashing  things  to  the  sea,"  1  they  traveled  in  two  wings, 
and  carried  but  few  tents  and  little  baggage.  They  slept  on 
the  ground  or  in  barns  or  houses,  wherever  night  overtook 
them  ;  and  they  "  foraged  "  on  the  country  • —  that  is, 
helped  themselves  to  whatever  food  they  could  find  for 
themselves  and  their  horses.  Throughout  a  width  of  sixty 
miles  and  a  length  of  three  , 

hundred,  railroads  and  tele 
graph  lines  were  demolished, 
towns  and  farms  were  bereft 
of  all  their  supplies,  hundreds 
of  buildings  were  burned,  and 
immense  quantities  of  all  kinds 
of  property  were  destroyed. 
The  path  behind  them  was 
lined  with  blackened  ruins; 
they  left  nothing  upon  it  that 
could  support  man  or  beast. 
And  in  the  rear  of  the  army 
trudged  thousands  of  liberated 
slaves,  who  in  quaint  and  lusty 
songs  of  joy  sounded  the  praises  of  "  Massa  Sherman"  and 
his  men. 

It  was  a  terrible  experience  for  the  South,  from  which  it 
took  many  years  to  recover.  But  to  Sherman  it  seemed 
necessary  as  a  "  war  measure,"  to  help  shorten  the  agony  of 
the  conflict.  Nobody  regretted  it  more  than  he  did  himself. 2 

1  This  march  was  made  the  subject  of  a  stirring  and  still  very  popular  song, 
"Marching  through  Georgia." 

z  In  his  official  report  Sherman  wrote:  "We  have  consumed  the  corn  and  fod 
der  in  the  region  of  country  thirty  miles  on  either  side  of  a  line  from  Atlanta 
to  Savannah,  as  also  the  sweet  potatoes,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry,  and 
have  carried  away  more  than  10,000  mules  and  horses,  as  well  as  countless 
numbers  of  their  slaves.  I  estimate  the  damage  done  to  the  State  of  Georgia 
and  its  military  resources  at  $100,000,000,  at  least  $20,000,000  of  which  has 
inured  to  our  advantage  and  the  remainder  is  simply  waste  and  destruction." 
This  is  an  example  of  the  terrible  loss  in  property  caused  by  war,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  destruction  of  human  life. 


THE  CHATTANOOGA  CAMPAIGN 

This  shows  also  Sherman's  line  of  march 


376  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

The  great  march  lasted  not  quite  a  month.  By  the  middle 
of  December  Sherman  had  captured  Fort  McAllister,  to  the 
south  of  Savannah;  and  the  next  week  he  took  possession 
of  that  city  itself.  He  sent  the  news  to  President  Lincoln  in 
this  message,  which  went  by  sea  to  Fortress  Monroe  and 
from  there  by  telegraph  to  Washington,  where  it  arrived  on 
Christmas  Eve :  - 

SAVANNAH,  GA.,  December  22,  1864. 
To  his  Excellency,  President  Lincoln: 

I  beg  to  present  you  as  a  Christmas  gift,  the  city  of  Savannah 
with  150  heavy  guns  and  plenty  of  ammunition,  and  also  about 
25,000  bales  of  cotton. 

W.  T.  SHERMAN,  Major  General. 

Five  weeks  later  Sherman  turned  northward,  intending 
to  drive  the  enemy  before  him.  His  goal  was  Richmond, 
where  he  hoped  to  join  Grant  in  a  final  assault  on  the 
enemy's  capital.  While  marching  from  Atlanta  to  Savan 
nah  he  had  met  with  little  armed  resistance,  for  the  Con 
federate  army  in  the  West  had  been  entirely  broken  up  in 
the  Atlanta  campaign.  But  from  Savannah  northward  he 
was  frequently  beset  by  foes,  and  had  to  fight  his  way  through 
South  Carolina.  Upon  reaching  Columbia,  Sherman  burned 
the  warehouses  and  supplies  of  the  Confederates.  Un 
fortunately  and  without  design,  the  flames  got  beyond  the 
soldiers'  control  and  the  town  itself  was  destroyed.  In  the 
last  week  of  March,  1865,  the  Union  army  won  a  stoutly 
contested  battle  at  Goldsboro,  North  Carolina. 

344.  The  service  of  the  navy.  While  these  victories 
were  being  won  by  Federal  troops  in  the  interior  of  the 
Confederacy,  the  Federal  navy  was  doing  important  work. 
It  transported  land  troops  from  place  to  place,  kept  up  the 
blockade,  did  its  best  to  protect  Northern  ships  from  Con 
federate  cruisers,  and  captured  many  of  the  important 
river  towns  and  seaports  of  the  South. 

345-  Farragut  captures  Mobile.    New  Orleans  had  been 
captured  by  the  Union  forces  in  1862.  It  now  remained  to 


THE   CAMPAIGNS  OF   1863  AND    1864  377 

take  Mobile,  the  other  great  port  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
This  task  was  given  to  the  daring  and  energetic  Admiral 
Farragut,  who  had  taken  New  Orleans  and  assisted  Grant 
in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  On  August  5,  1864,  about  six 
weeks  before  Sherman  took  Atlanta,  Farragut  advanced 
with  a  strong  fleet  against  Mobile,  which  was  protected  by 
several  ships,  besides  shore  forts  and  batteries.  Lashed 
high  up  in  the  rigging  of  his  own  vessel,  he  could  see  above 
the  smoke  of  battle  and  was  the  better  able  to  direct 
the  movements  of  his  captains.  After  a  sharp  fight  the 
Admiral  demolished  the  enemy's  fleet  and  silenced  the  shore 
guns. 

The  loss  of  Mobile  was  severely  felt  by  the  Confederates, 
for  they  had  now  completely  lost  control  of  the  Gulf,  which 
had  been  their  chief  outlet  for  the  blockade  runners  that 
smuggled  cotton  to  England. 

By  the  close  of  the  year  1864  it  was  plainly  to  be  seen  that 
the  South  was  being  gradually  closed  in  upon  by  the  stronger 
forces  of  the  North.  It  was  now  merely  a  question  of  time 
when  the  Confederacy  must  collapse. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 
I.  Fill  in  the  following  outline  of  the  campaigns  of  1863-64:  — 


Chief  Battles 

Northern  Leaders 

Southern  Leaders 

Result 

2.  Trace  on  a  map  the  route  followed  by  Lee  in  his  attempted  invasion  of 
the  North. 

3.  Compare,  as  to  number  engaged   and   number  killed,  the  decisive 
battle  of  the  Revolution  with  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Civil  War.  Fix 
the  date  and  location  of  each. 

4.  Read  Andrews's  A  Perfect  Tribute. 

5.  Learn  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address,  page  367. 

6.  Was  Sherman  justified  in  laying  waste  the  whole  country  through 
which  he  passed  to  the  sea?   Debate. 

7.  What  was  Grant's  strongest  trait  as  a  general?   Give  proofs  of  your 
statement. 


378  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

8.  YVhich  of  the  Northern  generals  do  you  admire  most?   Why?    Which 
of  the  Southern?   Why? 

9.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

10.  Important  dates:  July  1-4,  1863  —  Battle  of  Gettysburg  and  the  Sur 
render  of  Vicksburg. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1 .  Write  a  short  sketch  of  the  life  of  the  leader  in  the  Civil  War  whom  you 
most  admire. 

2.  Read  in  a  large  history  an  account  of  Pickett's  charge  and  describe 
it  to  the  class,  using  the  blackboard. 

3.  Give  an  account  of  a  boy  who  is  trying  to  persuade  his  father  to  allow 
him  to  enlist  in  the  war  as  a  drummer  boy.    Dramatize. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR:  ITS  COST  AND  ITS  RESULTS 

346.  The  President  enters  on  a  second  term.    Lincoln 
was  reflected  President,  and  his  second  inauguration  took 
place  on  March  4,  1865.    In  his  inaugural  address  he  elo 
quently  said:  "  With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for 
all,  with  firmness  in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the 
right,  let  us  strive  to  finish  the  work  we  are  in,  to  bind  up 
the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne  the 
battle  and  for  his  widow  and  his  orphan  —  to  do  all  which 
may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  lasting  peace  among 
ourselves  and  with  all  nations.'* 

By  that  time  events  were  happening  that  foreshadowed 
the  speedy  end  of  the  long  and  terrible  war. 

347.  Lee  is  surrounded.    During  the  winter  of  1864-65 
Lee's  army  was  gradually  being  surrounded  by  the  much 
larger,  better-fed,  and  better-equipped  army  of  the  Union. 
One  by  one  all  sources  of  supply  for  the  Confederate  forces 
were  being  cut  off.    After  the  fall  of  Chattanooga  and  At 
lanta,  and  Sherman's   destructive  march  to  the  sea,  Lee 
could  no  longer  get  either  men  or  food  from  west  of  the  Alle 
gheny  Mountains.    The  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  was 
under  Union  control.  Sherman  was  now  driving  or  destroy 
ing  everything  before  him,  on  his  way  northward  from  Sa 
vannah,  and  thus  made  it  impossible  for  Richmond  longer  to 
receive  help  from  the  South.    In  a  series  of  brilliant  dashes, 
Sheridan1  was  likewise  devastating  the  fertile  Shenandoah 

1  Philip  Henry  Sheridan  was  a  native  of  New  York  State,  where  he  was  born 
in  1831.  Having  been  educated  at  West  Point,  he  was  an  infantry  captain 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  But  he  soon  went  into  the  cavalry,  and 
was  so  brave  and  dashing  a  leader  that  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  a  major- 
general.  In  October,  1864,  when  he  was  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the^ Shenan 
doah,  a  part  of  his  troops  were  surprised  by  the  enemy.  He  was  himself  at 
Winchester,  twenty  miles  away,  but  on  hearing  the  roar  of  battle  rode  rapidly 


38o 


THE   CIVIL   WAR 


Valley,  which  was  Lee's  pathway  to  the  rich  farming  coun 
try  of  Maryland.  Thus,  wherever  the  Confederate  com 
mander  turned,  he  faced  Union  troops;  and  soon  his  soldiers 
were  suffering  severely  for  lack  of  proper  and  sufficient  food. 
Their^  clothing  was  also  worn  to  shreds,  even  their  shoes 
were  in  bad  condition. 

348.  The  surrender  of  Lee.  On  the  night  of  April  i,  1865, 
the  silent  and  persistent  Grant  at  last  hammered  down  the 
formidable  defenses  of  Petersburg.  The  next  day  Lee  in  de 
spair  retreated  to  the  west  under  cover  of  darkness,  and  on 
April  3  Grant  floated  the  Stars  and  Stripes  above  the  roofs 
of  Richmond.  The  President  soon  arrived  from  Washing 
ton,  and  the  Union  camp  was  a  scene  of  triumphant  joy. 
But  Lee  had  escaped.  To  capture  him  and  his  army  was 

now  Grant's  chief 

%^  desire.     The  Con 

federate  general 
had  hoped  to  join 
his  half -starved 
forces  to  those  of 
General  Joseph  E. 
Johnston,  and  to 
make  another  stand 
against  the  enemy. 

SST,  by  77,,  Century  Co.       Sheridan's        trOOpS 

THE  VILLAGE  OF  APPOMATTOX  COURT  HOUSE1    blocked     the     Way, 

however,     at    the 

small  village  of  Appomattox  Court  House,  seventy-five  miles 
west  of  Richmond.  The  leader  of  the  Confederate  army  was 
no  longer  able  to  fight.  Therefore,  with  nearly  27,000  of  his 

toward  the  scene  and  met  his  men  in  full  retreat.  He  is  reported  to  have  shouted 
to  them,  "Face  the  other  way,  boys!  We  aregoing  back  to  our  camps!"  They 
at  once  turned  and  drove  their  pursuers  from  the  field.  This  incident  is  im 
mortalized  in  Thomas  Buchanan  Read's  thrilling  poem,  "Sheridan's  Ride." 
Sheridan  was  in  1888  made  general-in-chief  of  the  army,  and  died  a  few  months 
later.  "Little  Phil,"  as  his  soldiers  called  him,  because  of  his  small  stature,  was 
never  defeated  in  battle. 

1  From  a  war-time  photograph  reproduced  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  house  on  the  right,  with  the  veranda,  is  Mr.  McLean's  house,  in 
which  the  articles  of  capitulation  were  agreed  upon  and  signed. 


THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR  381 

men,  he  surrendered  to  Grant  on  April  9.  This  important 
event  took  place  in  the  parlor  of  a  small  brick  house  in 
the  village,  in  the  presence  of  a  few  Confederates  and  the 
leading  generals  of  the  Eastern  army  of  the  Union. 

Feelings  of  bitterness  at  once  ceased  between  the  two 
rival  armies.  The  "  boys  in  blue  "  freely  shared  their  food 
with  the  famished  and  worn-out  "  boys  in  gray,"  whom  they 


Copyright,  ISH7,  by  The  Century  Co. 

UNION  SOLDIERS  SHARING  THEIR  RATIONS  WITH  CONFED 
ERATES  AFTER  LEE'S  SURRENDER  1 

now  treated  as  guests.    Grant  sent  25,000  rations  to  the 
Confederate  camp,  a  good  evidence  of  his  magnanimity. 

The  terms  of  surrender,  also,  were  as  generous  and  honor 
able  as  any  ever  recorded  in  the  history  of  warfare.  The 
Union  general  permitted  the  men  and  officers  of  the  Con 
federate  army  at  once  to  leave  for  their  homes,  on  giving 
up  their  guns  and  promising  no  longer  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  United  States.  All  of  them  were  allowed  to 
take  with  them  their  baggage  and  side-arms  (pistols  and 
swords),  also  their  horses  and  mules.2  Grant  said  to  Lee 

1  From  a  war-time  sketch  reproduced  in  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War. 

2  The  animals  used  in  the  Union  army  belonged  to  the  Federal  Government; 
but  Lee  told  Grant  that  in  the  Confederate  army  they  were  the  private  property 
of  the  cavalrymen  and  artillerymen  who  rode  them. 


382  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

that  as  most  of  the  men  in  the  Confederate  ranks  were  small 
farmers,  "  and  as  the  country  has  been  so  raided  by  the  two 
armies,  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  will  be  able  to  put  in  a 
crop  to  carry  themselves  and  their  families  through  the  next 
winter  without  the  aid  of  the  horses  they  are  now  riding." 

In  other  ways,  also,  the  victorious  general  was  kind  to 
the  conquered  army.  He  would  not  allow  his  men  to  fire 
any  salutes  or  hold  any  sort  of  celebration  over  the  result. 
He  declared  that  respect  and  sympathy  must  now  be  felt  by 
Union  soldiers  for  the  men  who  had  so  long  been  their  foes, 
but  who  now  were  their  fellow  citizens.  Nothing  whatever 
was  done  by  the  army  that  might  seem  to  be  mocking  at 
the  unfortunate  Southerners  in  this  bitter  hour  of  their 
defeat. 

On  April  26  Jormston  and  his  followers  also  surrendered  to 
Sherman,  near  Raleigh,  North  Carolina.  The  conditions 
were  the  same  as  Grant  had  allowed  to  Lee,  and  there  was 
the  same  silent  respect  on  the  part  of  the  Northern  troops. 
This  event  virtually  ended  the  war.1 

349.  The  assassination  of  President  Lincoln.  On  the 
night  of  April  14,  1865,  only  five  days  after  Lee's  surrender, 
President  Lincoln  was  attending  a  play  at  Ford's  Theater,  in 
Washington.  An  actor  named  John  Wilkes  Booth,  who  was 
a  fanatical  sympathizer  with  the  defeated  South,  shot  him 
through  the  brain,  and  at  once  fled.2  Tremendous  excite 
ment  followed,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  assassin  suc 
ceeded  in  escaping  from  the  theater;  but  he  was  soon  after 
ward  discovered  hiding  in  a  barn  in  Virginia  and  shot  by 
some  soldiers.  The  President  died  from  his  wound  the  morn 
ing  of  April  15. 3 

1  When  Lee  abandoned  Richmond,  Jefferson  Davis,  President  of  the  Con 
federacy,  fled  to  Irwinsville,  Georgia,  but  was  captured  by  Union  cavalry  on 
May  10. 

2  In  his  flight  the  assassin  shouted  "  Sic  Semper  Tyrannis!  "  (So  may  it  al 
ways  be  with  tyrants).  These  words  are  the  motto  on  the  seal  of  Virginia. 

3  Booth  was  one  of  several  conspirators  who  had  hoped  also  to  kill  other 
prominent  members  of  the  Federal  Government.    William  H.  Seward,  the  Sec 
retary  of  State,  was  wounded  while  lying  in  bed,  at  about  the  same  time  that 
the  President  was  attacked.   Four  of  the  conspirators  were  hanged,  and  others 
imprisoned  for  life.    None  escaped. 


THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR  383 

The  assassination  of  the  President,  which  so  quickly  fol 
lowed  the  victory  which  he  had  helped  to  bring  about,  was 
felt  as  a  cruel  blow  by  the  entire  North.  His  splendid  ability, 
his  lofty  character,  the  purity  of  his  heart  and  mind,  and  his 
many  other  lovable  qualities,  had  made  him,  while  living, 
the  idol  of  the  loyal  States.  He  had  now  fallen  as  a  martyr  to 
the  Union  cause ;  and  at  his  death,  the  South  realized  that 
she,  too,  had  lost  her  best  friend.  Lincoln  will  ever  be  re 
garded  in  history  as  the  savior  of  his  country  —  one  of  the 
greatest  of  Americans.  Stanton,  his  Secretary  of  War,  said 
that  he  was  "  the  most  perfect  ruler  of  men  the  world  has 


ever  seen." 


350.  The  disbandment  of  the  armies.    Shortly  after  the 
declaration  of  peace,  the  two  great  contending  armies  of 
citizen  soldiers  disbanded.   The  greater  part  of  the  Union 
veterans,  now  a  million  strong,  marched  home  through 
Washington.1   Here  at  the  nation's  capital  two  days  were 
given  up  to  splendid  parades,  which  were  reviewed  by  the 
principal  officers  of  the  Government,  and  witnessed  by  enor 
mous  and  enthusiastic  crowds.    Then,  as  the  Confederate 
veterans  had  already  done,  they  returned  quietly  and  seri 
ously  to  their  homes  in  the  several  States.    There  most  of 
them  at  once  resumed  the  occupations  that  they  had  left 
when  the  war  broke  out  —  on  the  farms  and  plantations,  in 
mines,  factories,  offices,  and  workshops.    Thousands,  how 
ever,  from  both  South  and  North,  took  up  new  farms  or 
built  new  towns  in  the  West,  which  vast  region  had  now 
become  the  most  rapidly  growing  part  of  the  Union. 

351.  What  the  war  cost,  in  lives  and  treasure.  The  foul 
years  of  warfare  had  cost  the  lives  —  either  by  direct  death 
or  from  wounds  and  sickness  —  of  over  half  a  million  of  the 
most  promising  citizens  of  the  nation.    This  appalling  loss 

1  There  were  2,778,304  enlistments  in  the  Union  army  and  navy;  but  many 
of  the  men  reenlisted  when  their  terms  of  service  expired.  It  is  not  now  known 
how  many  different  men  there  actually  were  —  possibly  not  much  over  two 
millions.  The  Commissioner  of  Pensions,  in  a  letter  written  in  1911,  estimated 
that  of  these  enlistments,  2,159,798  were  men  twenty-one  years  of  age  or 
under.  Nearly  every  great  army  in  history  has  been  mostly  composed  of  youths 
and  young  men. 


384  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

was  about  equally  divided  between  North  and  South.1  The 
cost  to  the  Union,  in  money,  was  the  enormous  sum  of 
about  three  and  a  quarter  billions  of  dollars.  The  Confed 
eracy  probably  spent  half  as  much.2 

352.  How  the  money  was  raised  in  the  North.  The 
Federal  authorities  were  very  skillful  and  energetic  in  raising 
this  extraordinary  amount  of  money.  They  did  it  in  two 
ways :  - 

(a)  By  greatly  increasing  the  taxes.     In  addition  to  the 
usual  taxes  on  land  and  other  property  every  man  paid  a 
tax  on  his  yearly  income  if  it  was  over  $600.    He  also  paid 
special  taxes  on  the  luxuries  he  owned  —  such  as  horses, 
carriages,  gold  watches,  and  pianos.    When  he  signed  a 
check  on  the  bank  or  a  deed  for  land  that  he  had  sold,  or 
gave  a  receipt  for  money  paid  to  him,  he  was  obliged  to  affix 
to  the  paper  an  internal  revenue  stamp.    This  was  quite 
similar  to  a  postage  stamp.    Its  cost  varied  according  to  the 
amount  of  money  mentioned  in  the  paper.  The  duties  on 
imports  were  likewise  greatly  increased. 

(b)  By  borrowing.   This  was  done  in  various  ways:  First, 
by  selling  government  bonds.    These  were  pledges  to  pay 
back  to  the  holder  the  money  paid  for  the  bond,  at  some 
future  time,  — twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  years,  —  with  a  good 
rate  of  interest.  Second,  by  printing  and  issuing  great  quan 
tities  of  paper  money  --  which  is  another  kind  of  promise  to 
pay  back  gold  or  silver  money,  but  without  interest.3  Every 
citizen  was  obliged  by  law  to  accept  this  paper  money  just 
as  he  would  gold,  in  payment  for  all  debts  that  were  owed 
him.    But  in  spite  of  this,  paper  money  grew  less  and  less 
valuable,  for  such   enormous  quantities  of  it  were  issued 
that  most  persons  feared  the  Government  might  never  be 

1  The  loss  to  the  Union  was  359, 528  men.  How  many  the  South  lost  will  never 
be  known  because  of  imperfect  records,  but  probably  as  many  as  the  North. 

2  The  freeing  of  the  negroes  by  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  nieant  a  loss 
of  about  $2,000,000,000  to  the  Southern  slaveholders.     This  is  allowing  $500 
as  the  value  of  each  slave. 

3  The  small  bills,  for  sums  below  a  dollar,  were  popularly  called  "shinplas- 
ters";  the  bills  for  one  dollar  or  more  were  known  as  "greenbacks,"  because  of 
their  color. 


THE   CLOSE  OF  THE  WAR  385 

able  to  redeem  it  all ;  so  they  did  not  like  to  take  it.  At 
one  time  (July,  1864)  a  paper  dollar  was  worth  only  about 
thirty-five  cents  in  gold  coin.  This  meant  that  if  you  went 
to  a  store  and  wanted  to  buy  a  pair  of  boots  you  were  asked 
two  different  prices  for  them  —  $3.50  if  you  could  pay  in 
gold,  but  $10  if  you  offered  paper  money.  Long  years  after 
the  war,  however,  the  Government  paid  up  its  bonds  and 
redeemed  a  large  part  of  the  paper  money.  What  paper 
money  we  still  have,  is  issued  only  because  it  is  thought 
in  most  portions  of  the  country  to  be  more  convenient  than 
gold  coin.1 

Most  of  the  people  of  the  North  severely  felt  the  hardship 
of  these  war  taxes  and  the  high  prices  which  came  from  the 
large  issues  of  paper  money.  They  were,  however,  quite 
willing  to  suffer  privations  in  order  to  help  pay  the  cost 
of  carrying  on  the  struggle. 

But  the  business  of  the  North  was  not  seriously  injured 
during  the  four  years  of  conflict.  Indeed,  the  industries  of 
that  region  thrived  upon  the  war,  for  the  Government  was 
constantly  buying  for  the  army,  at  high  prices,  enormous 
quantities  of  clothing,  food,  and  other  military  supplies.  In 
return  for  these  benefits,  the  prosperous  owners  of  factories, 
mines,  and  farms  could  well  afford  to  pay  their  share  of  the 
burden.  During  the  war  many  new  mills  and  factories  were 
built,  mines  were  opened,  the  West  made  marked  growth, 
ships  and  railroads  were  well  patronized,  and  there  were 
enough  men  who  did  not  go  to  the  front,  to  carry  on  all 
these  enterprises. 

353.  How  the  money  was  raised  in  the  South.  But  in  the 
South  there  were  but  few  mines,  factories,  or  large  business 
enterprises  to  help  pay  the  war  taxes.  The  Union  blockade 
had  almost  stopped  the  sale  of  Southern  crops  in  Europe  so 
that  the  planters  had  little  money  to  give  to  their  Govern 
ment.  Moreover,  hostile  armies  frequently  raided  the  seced 
ing  States,  and  left  in  them  little  of  value.  The  war  reduced 
the  South  to  poverty. 

1  On  the  Pacific  Coast,  however,  coin  is  used  more  frequently  than  paper. 


386 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 


To  make  up  for  the  lack  of  taxes  the  Confederates  issued 
almost  countless  bonds  and  paper  bills.  So  long  as  they 
were  confident  of  victory,  the  people  of  the  South  willingly 
accepted  this  paper.  But  as  the  war  went  on,  doubt  arose 
as  to  the  success  of  their  cause,  and  there  seemed  little 
chance  of  the  bonds  and  paper  money  ever  being  paid.  The 
Southerners  had  then  to  be  forced  to  take  them  in  payment 
for  labor  or  supplies.  Consequently,  when  bills  were  offered, 
the  prices  asked  were  ridiculously  high  —  at  one  time  a 

barrel  of  flour 
brought  $1000. 
Amusing  stories 
were  told  of  how 
men  had  to  take 
with  them  a 
wheelbarrow  load 
of  paper  money 

CONFEDERATE  BILL  to  buy  a  pair  of 

shoes   or  a  hat. 

Unlike  the  bonds  and  paper  money  of  the  Union,  those 
issued  by  the  Confederacy  were  never  redeemed,  and  to-day 
are  worth  nothing  except  as  curiosities. 

354.  The  effect  of  the  war  on  Northern  homes.  The  most 
serious  effect  on  the  North  was  the  enormous  loss  of  life. 
Nearly  every  family  in  the  land  was  in  mourning,  because 
husband,  father,  son,  or  some  beloved  relative  had  never 
returned  from  the  Southern  battlefields.  Widows  and 
orphans  were  numerous  in  almost  every  neighborhood,  and 
thousands  of  these  were  left  without  any  means  of  support.1 
War  is  more  cruel  to  women  and  children  than  it  is  to  the 
soldiers  themselves. 

The  women  of  the  North  were  very  active  throughout  the 
war.  Thousands  of  them,  together  with  their  children,  worked 
the  farms  or  carried  on  small  factories  or  shops,  while  the 

1  The  Federal  Government  has  spent  nearly  four  billions  of  dollars  since  the 
war,  in  pensions  for  the  surviving  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Union,  or  for  the 
widows  and  dependent  relatives  of  those  who  have  died.  There  are  nearly  one 
million  of  such  pensioners  on  the  pay-roll  of  the  Pension  Office. 


THE   CLOSE  OF  THE   WAR  387 

men  of  the  families  were  serving  their  nation  as  soldiers. 
In  hundreds  of  towns  the  women  formed  soldiers'  aid  socie 
ties  and  sent  to  the  camps  clothing,  food,  bandages  for  the 
wounded,  medicines  for  the  sick,  books,  and  papers.  They 
even  went  themselves  to  the  battlefields  and  army  hospitals 
as  nurses,  and  in  many  other  ways  encouraged  and  helped 
the  troops.  Two  great  and  skillfully  conducted  national 
organizations  were  formed,  chiefly  by  women,  to  carry  on 
this  work  —  the  Sanitary  and  Christian  Commissions.  Both 
of  these  bodies,  especially  the  former,  were  very  powerful 
aids  to  the  welfare  and  success  of  the  Union  army. 

355.  Its  effect  on  Southern  homes.  The  families  of  the 
South  suffered  far  more  than  those  of  the  North.   A  much 
greater  proportion  of  Southern  men  were  soldiers.    The  loss 
of  life  in  each  neighborhood,  therefore,  was  proportionately 
larger;  and  destitute  widows  and  orphans  were  even  more 
plentiful  than  in  the  North.  The  Southern  women,  like  those 
of  the  North,  made  clothing  and  prepared  food  for  their  loved 
ones  at  the  front;  but  they  had  little  money  to  spend  for 
such  articles,  and  no  Sanitary  or  Christian  Commission  to 
help  them  in  their  work.  Moreover,  the  Southern  women 
and  children  who  were  left  at  home  suffered  great  hardships 
from  the  fact  that  their  country  was  the  scene  of  nearly  all 
the  fighting  and  destructive  raiding. 

The  Southern  hospital  service  was  much  poorer  than  that 
of  the  North,  so  the  sick  and  wounded  could  not  be  well 
cared  for.  Seldom  was  the  Confederate  army  supplied  with 
proper  food  or  clothing;  and  most  of  their  guns,  swords, 
and  cannon  were  much  inferior  to  those  supplied  to  the 
troops  of  the  Federal  Government. 

When  the  war  ended  such  towns  of  the  South  as  had  not 
been  destroyed  were  almost  empty.  Her  plantations,  rail 
roads,  and  bridges  had  been  ruined.  Her  trade  and  her 
slaves  were  gone.  Her  planters,  who  a  few  years  before  were 
men  of  wealth,  were  now  poor.  Few  countries  have  ever  been 
quite  so  severely  prostrated  by  the  terrible  shock  of  war. 

356.  What  was  accomplished  by  the  war.  Probably  it 


388  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

was  out  of  the  power  of  any  one  to  have  prevented  the  great 
conflict.  Most  Americans  thought  at  that  time  that  only 
a  war  could  settle  the  two  burning  questions  that  for  thirty 
years  had  agitated  this  nation :  - 

(a)  Whether  dissatisfied  States  should  be  allowed  to  se 
cede  from  the  Union.  If  so,  this  country  would  be  split  up 
into  two  or  more  small  independent  nations,  and  these  would 
quite  likely  often  be  at  war  with  each  other. 

(5)  Whether  slavery  in  America  should  be  allowed  to  con 
tinue  and  to  spread.  Must  the  South  always  be  obliged 
to  live  under  the  terrible  blight  of  bondage? 

The  war  settled  these  great  questions  in  the  negative,  and 
apparently  they  will  never  again  arise.  In  1830  Jackson  had 
insisted  that  "  Our  Federal  Union:  it  must  and  shall  be 
preserved."  In  1858  Lincoln  had  declared  that  "  A  house 
divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.  I  believe  this  govern 
ment  cannot  endure  permanently  half  slave  and  half  free. 
.  .  .  It  will  become  all  one  thing  or  all  the  other."  These 
men  were  prophets,  and  their  words  have  come  true. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Learn  the  quotation  from  Lincoln's  second  inaugural  address  given  in 
the  text. 

2.  Lincoln  said  in  1864,  "We  have  not  been  fighting  aliens,  but  misled, 
misguided  friends  and  brothers,  members  of  our  own  household." 
Bring  incidents  to  class  to  show  that  the  Northern  generals  and  their 
soldiers  felt  this  way  also. 

3.  Compare  the  transferring  of  soldiers  during  the  Civil  War  from  place 
to  place  with  the  mode  of  transfer  during  the  Revolution.    Account 
for  the  difference. 

4.  Let  each  pupil  bring  to  class  a  story  to  illustrate  some  trait  of  Lin 
coln's  character;  e.g.,  his  patience,  his  humor,' his  freedom  from  bit 
terness  or  prejudice,  his  power  to  think  and  to  act  for  himself. 

5.  Without  using  any  names  describe  several  of  the  foremost  leaders  of 
the  North  and  the  South.    At  the  close  of  each  sketch  see  if  your 
classmates  can  guess  whom  you  have  described. 

6.  Throughout  the  war  who  was  recognized  as  the  chief  general  of  the 
Southern  forces?  Note  the  number  of  changes  in  the  Northern  generals 
before  the  right  leader  was  found. 

7.  Learn  Whitman's  0  Captain!  My  Captain!    Also    the    portion    of 
Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode  referring  to  Lincoln ;  begin  with  the  line. 


REVIEW  389 

"Life  may  be  given  in  many  ways,"  in  stanza  v,  and  end  with  the 
close  of  stanza  vi. 

8.  Compare  the  gain  with  the  loss  of  the  Civil  War. 

9.  State  the  different  ways  of  raising  money  in  the  North  for  carrying  on 
the  war;  in  the  South. 

10.  Be  able  to  state  clearly  what  the  North  fought  for;  what  the  South 
fought  for;  what  the  war  decided. 

11.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

12.  Important  date:  April,  1865  — Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox ;  death 
of  Lincoln. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  Southern  planter  whose  property  lay  in  the 
path  of  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.   Write  of  your  struggle  to  bring 
order  out  of  the  chaos  left  by  the  Northern  army. 

2.  Describe  and  dramatize  the  return  of  a  soldier  to  his  home. 

3.  The  place  is  a  farm  in  the  North.    News  is  received  of  the  death  of 
Lincoln.    Describe  the  scene. 

4.  Write  four  paragraphs,  one  describing  each  of  these  scenes  in  the  life 
of  Lincoln:  — 

(a)  An  event  of  his  boyhood. 

(b)  A  debate  with  Douglas. 

(c)  The  signing  of  the  Emancipation  Proclamation. 

(d)  The  visit  to  Richmond  after  the  surrender. 


REVIEW  OF  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

THE  struggle  between  the  principle  of  states'  rights  on  the  one 
hand  and  that  of  centralized  government  on  the  other,  together 
with  the  irritation  caused  by  sectional  differences  as  to  slavery, 
culminated  in  the  greatest  civil  war  that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  war  began  in  1861  with  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter.  The  plan 
of  war  east  of  the  Allegheriies  consisted  chiefly  in  the  efforts  of  the 
opposing  armies  to  take  Richmond  and  Washington. 

In  1862  the  Northern  advance  toward  Richmond  was  foiled 
by  Lee  and  Jackson  in  the  Seven  Days'  battles  and  the  second 
battle  at  Bull  Run;  and  Lee  was  turned  back  from  his  advance 
toward  Washington  by  McClellan  at  Antietam. 

In  1863  Lee  defeated  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville  and  started 
to  invade  the  North.  He  was  defeated  and  turned  back  by  Meade 
in  the  great  three  days'  battle  at  Gettysburg  during  the  first 
week  of  July. 

In  1864  Grant  invaded  Virginia.  Every  inch  of  ground  gained 
by  the  North  was  stubbornly  contested  by  the  Confederates.  In 
this  campaign  occurred  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness,  Spottsyl- 


390  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

/ 

vania,  and  Cold  Harbor.  The  movement  ended  in  the  siege  oi 
Petersburg,  twenty-three  miles  from  Richmond. 

West  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains  the  fighting  centered  on  the 
rivers.  The  South  had  strongly  fortified  many  posts  along  the 
Mississippi,  Cumberland,  and  Tennessee  Rivers.  Unless  she  could 
hold  the  Mississippi  she  would  be  cut  off  from  the  aid  of  Arkan 
sas,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  The  Cumberland  and  the  Tennessee 
were  highways  into  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy.  In  1862  post 
after  post  on  these  three  rivers  surrendered  to  the  forces  of  the 
Union.  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  Pittsburg  Landing,  Island 
No.  10,  Corinth,  Memphis,  and  New  Orleans  were  successively 
taken.  In  1863  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson  were  captured.  The 
Confederacy  was  cut  in  two  from  north  to  south.  In  the  latter 
part  of  this  year,  the  Northern  victory  at  Chattanooga,  following 
the  defeat  at  Chickamauga,  completed  the  story  of  Union  suc 
cess  in  the  West. 

In  1864  Grant,  who  had  made  his  reputation  in  these  Western 
campaigns,  was  put  in  charge  of  all  the  Union  armies.  He  placed 
Sherman  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  West  at  Chattanooga 
and  ordered  him  to  move  southward.  After  weeks  of  fighting 
Sherman  captured  Atlanta.  Then  began  his  famous  devastating 
march  to  the  sea,  which  destroyed  all  the  resources  of  that  sec 
tion  of  the  South  and  ended  in  the  capture  of  Savannah.  The 
Confederacy  was  now  cut  in  two  from  west  to  east. 

Sheridan  desolated  the  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah.  The  end  was 
now  inevitable.  In  April,  1865,  Lee  surrendered  to  Grant  at  Appo- 
mattox  Court  House.  This,  with  the  surrender  of  Johnston  to 
Sherman,  practically  ended  the  war. 

In  this  war  there  was  comparatively  little  fighting  on  the  high 
seas,  but  the  Union  navy's  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports  was 
a  most  invaluable  help  to  the  North.  The  success  of  the  Moni 
tor  against  the  Merrimac  was  essential  to  the  Union  cause;  had 
the  Merrimac  won,  she  might  have  compelled  the  raising  of  the 
blockade.  This,  the  first  combat  between  armored  ships,  showed 
that  wooden  warships  were  out  of  date.  Farragut  captured  New 
Orleans  and  Mobile,  and  he,  Porter,  and  Foote  did  gallant  service 
with  gunboats  on  the  Western  rivers. 

Throughout  the  war  Lincoln  was,  in  practice  as  well  as  in  theory, 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States.  He  appointed  and  removed  generals  and  consulted  with 
them  as  to  their  plans  of  campaign.  He  issued  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  and  it  was  at  his  word  that  the  Mason  and  Slidell 
incident  was  dealt  with  so  wisely.  His  death  was  the  greatest  loss 
that  could  have  befallen  the  nation  and  added  greatly  to  the  diffi 
culties  of  reconstruction. 


REVIEW  391 

Such  great  commanders  as  Grant,  Sherman,  Thomas,  and 
Sheridan,  and  Lee,  Johnston,  and  Jackson  were  brought  forward 
by  the  crises  of  the  war.  Each  side  fought  with  the  greatest  hero 
ism.  The  loss  to  the  nation  in  the  four  years  of  struggle  is  beyond 
computation. 

This  mighty  war  settled  two  questions  in  this  country,  probably 
for  all  time  to  come:  the  question  of  slavery,  and  the  right  of 
States  to  secede  from  the  Union. 

RECOMMENDED   READINGS 

HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries,  vol.  iv, 
pp.  151-92,  211-89,  309-444.  Fiske's  United  States,  pp.  350-84:  Missis 
sippi  Valley  in  the  Civil  War,  chaps,  n,  in,  v-vm.  Wilson's  Division  and. 
Reunion,  pp.  204-52.  Chadwick's  Causes  of  the  Civil  War,  chaps,  vn-ix, 
xvn-xix.  Hosmer's  Appeal  to  Arms,  chaps,  i-vm,  xin,  xiv,  xvm,  xix; 
Outcome  of  Civil  War,  chaps,  n-v,  x-xn,  xv-xvu.  Dodge's  Bird's- 
Eye  View  of  the  Civil  War,  chaps,  i-iv,  vin,  x,  xix-xxn,  xxv-xxx,  LIX, 
LX.  Rossiter  Johnson's  Short  Story  of  the  Civil  War,  chaps,  iv,  vi,  vin,  ix, 
xn-xvii,  xxvii-xxix.  Rhodes's  United  States,  vol.  HI,  chaps,  xm-xv; 
vol.  iv,  chaps,  xxi,  xxn;  vol.  v,  chaps,  xxiv-xxix.  Grant's  Memoirs 
(selected  parts).  Sherman's  Memoirs  (selected  parts).  Sheridan's  Personal 
Memoirs  (selected  parts).  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (written 
chiefly  by  commanders  of  each  great  battle).  Mrs.  Pryor's  Reminiscences 
of  Peace  and  War,  chaps,  vin,  ix,  xn-xxiv.  Mrs.  Burton  Harrison's  Re 
collections  Grave  and  Gay,  chaps,  i-x.  Clark's  Short  History  of  U.  S. 
Navy,  chaps,  xv-xxn.  Wilkinson's  A  Blockade  Runner.  Fite's  Social  and 
Industrial  Conditions  in  the  North  during  the  Civil  War,  chaps.  I,  vn,  IX- 
XI.  Alcott's  Hospital  Sketches.  Wise's  End  of  an  Era,  chaps,  xi-xiv, 
Xix-xxii.  Trumbull's  War  Memories  of  a  Chaplain,  chaps.  HI,  V-VH,  xi, 
xn.  Lincoln  biographies — thoseof  Noah  Brooks,  Hapgood,  Morse,  Schurz, 
andTarbell  are  all  recommended.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  is  the  great  life  of 
Lincoln;  it  has  been  condensed  into  one  volume,  Short  Life  of  Lincoln, 
Dodd's  Jefferson  Davis.  Lee  biographies — those  of  Bruce,  Page,  and  Trent 
are  recommended.  Mahan's  Farragut.  W'hite's  Stonewall  Jackson. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book  of  American  History,  pp.  298-335; 
Romance  of  Civil  War.  Elson's  Child's  Guide  to  American  History,  chaps. 
xvn,  xvm ;  Side  Lights,  vol.  n,  chaps,  i-v.  Famous  Adventures  and  Prison 
Escapes  of  Civil  War.  Tappan's  Our  Country's  Story,  pp.  208-28.  Champ- 
lin's  Young  Folks'  History  of  War  for  the  Union,  chaps,  m-vii,  xiv, 
xvn-xxi,  xxvui,  XLIII-XLVI.  Coffin's  Drumbeat  of  the  Nation;  Marching 
to.  Victory;  Redeeming  the  Republic;  Freedom  Triumphant.  Abbot's  Battle 
fields  of  '6 1 ;  Battlefields  and  Campfires;  Battlefields  and  Victory;  Blue- Jack 
ets  of  '61.  Lodge  and  Roosevelt's  Hero  Tales,  pp.  185-260,  281-335.  Kief- 
fer's  Recollections  of  a  Drummer  Boy.  Lives  of  Lincoln  —  those  of  Moores, 
Baldwin,  Noah  Brooks,  Helen  Nicolay,  and  Sparhawk  are  recommended. 
Lives  of  Grant  —  those  of  Allen,  Brooks,  and  Helen  Nicolay  are  recom- 


392  THE   CIVIL  WAR 

mended;  also  Burton's  Four  American  Patriots  (Grant).  Barnes's  Son  of 
Light  Horse  Harry  Lee.  Beebe's  Four  American  Naval  Heroes  (Farragut). 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Cable's  The  Cavalier.  Churchill's  The  Crisis.  Crane's 
Red  Badge  of  Courage.  G.  C.  Eggleston's  Master  of  Warlock;  Southern 
Soldier  Stories.  John  Fox's  Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come.  Glasgow's 
The  Battle  Ground.  Johnston's  The.  Long  Roll.  Page's  Burial  of  the  Guns. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Andrews's^  Perfect  Tribute.  Civil  War  Stories  retold  from 
St.  Nicholas.  Goss's  Jed;  Tom  Clifton.  Harris's  A  Little  Union  ScouL 
Henty  s  With  Lee  in  Virginia.  Page's  Among  the  Camps;  Two  Little  Con 
federates.  Stoddart's  Strange  Stories  of  the  Civil  War.  Trowbridge's  Drum 
mer  Boy;  Three  Scouts. 

POETRY 

Beers's  Picket  Guard.  Bryant's  Our  Country's  Call.  Gibbon's  Three 
Hundred  Thousand  More.  Gilmore's  When  Johnny  Comes  Marching  Home. 
Harte's  John  Burns  of  Gettysburg.  Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode.  Ran 
dall  s  My  Maryland.  Read's  Sheridan  s  Ride.  Root's  Shouting  the  Battle 
Cry  of  Freedom.  Whitman's  My  Captain.  Whittier's  Battle  Autumn  of 
1862 ;  Laus  Deo;  Barbara  Frietchie.  Work's  Marching  through  Georgia. 


.    i      yy?  \0«-*T 

^x?vc  \    A~A 
eai^To"*'          ;  -.   ~ 

!7>'    F      ^    B  100'     Ixmt.   C     W^t   130*    ftom      D      O,M.  UQ*          E 


CONTINENTAL  EXPANSION 

OF  THE 

UNITED   STATES 
Since  1783. 

SCALTOT  Mim 


onpitude  95  °  West        G        from    90  °  Greenwich  H 


THE   PERIOD    OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

CHAPTER   XXXVIII 

RECONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  UNION,  AND  OUR  FOREIGN 
RELATIONS:  THE  ATLANTIC  CABLE 

1865-1869 

357.  The  impoverished  South;  the  conduct  of  the  ne 
groes.  When  the  soldiers  of  the  South  returned  to  their 
homes,  it  was  to  an  impoverished  country.  Weeds  and 
bushes  were  choking  the  land.  Hardly  any  cattle,  horses, 
pigs,  or  chickens  had  been  left  by  the  devastating  armies. 
Most  of  the  farm  buildings  and  tools  had  either  been  de 
stroyed  or  had  fallen  to  pieces.  In  the  towns  and  villages 
there  was  very  little  business  going  on.  The  banks  had 
failed  and  their  doors  were  closed.  Confederate  bills  were 
worthless,  and  there  was  not  much  other  money  in  the  coun 
try.  A  third  of  the  men  and  youths  had  either  been  killed  in 
the  conflict  or  were  so  crippled  that  they  could  do  little 
work;  and  there  were  many  helpless  widows  and  orphans. 

This  was  sad  enough.  But  still  more  serious  was  the  ques 
tion  of  what  to  do  with  the  negroes,  who  in  some  of  the 
Southern  States  were  more  numerous  than  the  whites.  Ever 
since  these  poor  blacks  had  been  living  under  civilized 
conditions,  they  had  been  dependent  on  the  white  men  who 
owned  them,  and  for  whom  they  worked  either  under  the 
power  of  love  or  of  fear.  They  had  now  suddenly  been  re 
leased  from  this  dependence,  and  were  freemen.  But  they 
were  so  ignorant  and  inexperienced  that  they  hardly  knew 
what  to  do  with  their  liberty.  Large  numbers  of  them  de 
sired  to  see  the  world,  so  they  traveled  about  from  place 
to  place  and  swarmed  into  the  towns,  where  they  were  often 


394      THE   PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

disorderly  and  many  committed  crimes.  The  Southern  whites 
were  greatly  alarmed,  and  feared  that  negro  anarchy  would 
soon  be  upon  them,  which  might  be  even  worse  than  war. 

358.  President    Lincoln's    method    of    reconstruction. 
Meanwhile,  an  abundance  of  other  trouble  for  the  South 
was  being  prepared  at  Washington.   As  the  war  drew  to  an 
end,  Federal  statesmen  began  to  ask  themselves  how  the 
shattered  Union  should  be  "  reconstructed."   That  is,  how 
and  under  what  conditions  should  the  seceded  States  be 
brought  back  into  the  Union,  and  the  Secessionists  them 
selves  be  readmitted  to  citizenship  in  the  nation? 

President  Lincoln  wished  to  be  generous  to  the  defeated 
Confederates.  As  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  he 
granted  amnesty,  or  pardon,  to  large  numbers  of  them  who 
were  willing  to  take  an  oath  of  loyalty  to  the  United  States. 
But  he  would  not  do  this  for  the  officers  of  the  Confederate 
Government,  or  for  those  Confederates  who  having  held 
United  States  offices  when  the  war  broke  out  then  deserted 
the  Union.  He  offered  to  ' '  recognize ' '  any  State  as  being  re 
constructed  when  a  tenth  of  its  voters  had  taken  the  oath 
of  loyalty.  Such  reconstructed  States  ought  then,  he  said,  to 
be  permitted  to  send  their  Senators  and  Representatives  to 
Congress,  as  before  the  war.  But  of  course  he  realized  that 
only  Congress  itself  could  name  the  conditions  under  which 
members  of  the  two  houses  should  be  admitted.  His  liberal 
ideas  were  not  shared  by  all  of  the  Congressmen.  Had  he 
lived,  however,  probably  his  wisdom  would  have  found  some 
way  out  of  that  difficulty,  and  the  nation  might  have  been 
saved  much  of  the  serious  trouble  that  followed  his  death. 

359.  Johnson  succeeds  Lincoln.  Only  a  few  hours  after 
President  Lincoln  had  passed  away,  Vice- President  Andrew 
Johnson  took  the  oath  of  office  and  became  his  successor  at 
the  White  House.1    Upon  his  shoulders  now  fell  the  ex- 

1  Andrew  Johnson  was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1808.  When  ten  years  of 
age  he  began  to  learn  the  tailor's  trade.  In  his  eighteenth  year  he  and  his 
family  moved  to  Tennessee,  their  household  goods  being  drawn  in  a  two- wheeled 
cart  by  a  blind  pony.  There  Andrew  worked  at  his  bench,  and  had  almost  no 
education  until  he  married,  when  his  wife  taught  him  to  write.  He  became  a 


RECONSTRUCTION   PLANS  ^395 

tremely  difficult  task  of  restoring  the  authority  of  the  Union 
within  the  borders  of  the  seceded  States. 

360.  Johnson's  reconstruction  methods.  The  new  Presi 
dent's  ideas  about  reconstruction  were  much  like  those  of 
Lincoln.    But  Lincoln's  plan  was  formed  while  war  was  in 
progress;  whereas  Johnson's  was  offered  after  the  contest 
was  over,  which  was  a  very  different  situation.     Johnson, 
also,  could  not  manage  men  as  well  as  his  predecessor  did ; 
he  was   arbitrary  and   made   enemies  of  those  whom  he 
needed  as  friends. 

Like  Lincoln  he  granted  amnesty  to  a  large  number  of 
Southerners  who  took  the  oath  of  loyalty.  He  went  further, 
however.  Congress  could  not  meet  until  December,  several 
months  away.  He  therefore  was  free  from  interruption  until 
that  time,  and  he  took  advantage  of  this  fact  to  appoint 
provisional  governors  in  each  of  the  seceding  States.  These 
governors  called  together  constitutional  conventions  that :  — 

(a)  Declared  null  and  void  the  Ordinance  of  Secession  by 
which  the  State  had  joined  the  Confederacy. 

(b)  Declared  that  the  Confederate  debt  should  never  be 
paid. 

(c)  Ratified  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Federal 
Constitution.  This  Amendment  had  been  proposed  by  Con 
gress  in  January,  1865,  and  went  into  effect  the  following 
December.    It  forever  prohibited  slavery   in   the    United 
States,  and  did  for  the  entire  nation  what  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  had  done  for  the  seceding  States  alone. 

(d)  Made  arrangements  for  the  elections  of  State  Legisla 
tures  (who  were  to  elect  the  Federal  Senators)  and  of  Rep 
resentatives  to  Congress. 

361.  Why  Congress  objected  to  Johnson's  plan.  Now, 
said  President  Johnson,  it  only  remained  for  Congress  to 
admit  the  Senators  and  Representatives  from  the  South, 

powerful  orator,  and  prominent  in  politics.  After  serving  with  ability  in  various 
State  offices,  he  became  a  member  of  Congress,  then  a  Federal  Senator,  and 
during  the^var  military  governor  of  Tennessee.  He  was  chosen  Vice-President 
at  Lincoln's  second  election  (November,  1864).  He  was  elected  a  Federal  Sen 
ator  from  Tennessee  in  January,  1875,  and  died  the  following  July. 


396      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

and  reconstruction  would  be  complete.  But  the  Northern 
Congressmen  would  not  consent  to  receive  them.  They 
believed  that  the  South  should  not  be  allowed  representation 
in  Congress  until  it  was  quite  certain  that  the  former  slave 
owners  would  allow  the  emancipated  negroes  to  have  all 
the  rights  of  freemen.  They  said  that  the  President  was 
going  beyond  his  authority  in  doing  as  he  had  done;  and 
that  it  was  for  Congress,  and  Congress  alone,  to  say  howre« 
construction  should  be  brought  about. 

362.  The  Congressional  plan  of  reconstruction.  Congress 
had  meanwhile  formed  a  reconstruction  plan  of  its  own :  - 

(a)  First,  it  resolved  to  protect  the  negroes.    In  March, 
1866,  it  passed  the  Civil  Rights  Bill.   This  gave  author 
ity  for  the  former  slaves  to  use  the  courts  for  suing  persons 
who  owed  them  debts,  or  for  recovering  damages  in  case 
of  wrongs  done  to  them. 1  It  also  gave  to  the  negroes  the  pro 
tection  of  the  military  in  case  the  whites  did  not  give  them 
all  their  rights  as  citizens.  The  President  vetoed  this  meas 
ure  because  not  all  of  the  States  in  the  Union  were  repre 
sented  in  Congress.   But  that  body  promptly  passed  it  over 
his  veto. 

(b)  Congress  next  passed,  in  June,  1866,  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  and  the  States  ratified  it. 
This  gave  to  the  negro,  beyond  power  of  any  future  Congress 
to  repeal  them,  all  the  rights  of  citizenship,  except  that  the 
privilege  of  voting  was  not  assured  him;   and  it  prohibited 
the   States   from  doing  anything  to  take  away  his  rights. 
It  also  provided  that  no  man  should  be  elected  to  Congress 
or  to  any  important  State  office  who  had,  previous  to  seces 
sion,  sworn  allegiance  to  the  United  States  and  after  that 
had  taken  part  in  the  war,  unless  this  disability  had  been 
removed  by  act  of  Congress. 

(c)  The    Reconstruction   Act  followed,  in  March,  1867. 
This  placed  the  unreconstructed  States  under  the  manage 
ment  of  military  governors,  with  troops  to  aid  them.   But  if 
any  of  the  States  consented  to  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 

1  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  Dred  Scott  decision  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court  held  that  negro  slaves  had  no  rights  before  the  courts. 


IMPEACHMENT  OF  THE   PRESIDENT  397 

and  adopted  new  constitutions  giving  negroes  the  right  to 
vote,  such  States  were  to  be  readmitted  to  the  Union  and  to 
be  allowed  to  send  Senators  and  Representatives  to  Congress. 
Under  this  arrangement  six  States  came  back  into  the  fold 
in  June,  1 868:  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas.1 

(d)  In  1869  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  was  adopted,  mak 
ing  the  negro  a  voter.  So  far  as  Federal  laws  could  do  it,  he 
was  now  the  political  equal  of  the  white  man ;  it  was  left  for 
the  States  to  establish  their  own  requirements  for  citizenship. 

(e)  Congress  had  in  1865  passed  the  Freedmen's  Bureau 
Bill.  This  measure  sought  to  educate  and  care  for  the 
helpless  and  bewildered  negroes ;  to  allow  them  to  buy  gov 
ernment  land  on  very  easy  terms;  and  to  give  them  still 
further  military  protection.    In  1868  Congress  decided  to 
continue  the  work  of  the  Bureau;  but  the  President  vetoed 
this  decision.   Congress,  "nevertheless,  voted  that  the  Bu 
reau  should  proceed  with  its  undertaking  in  spite  of  his 
objection. 

363.  The    Tenure-of-Office    Act.  Throughout  the  four 
years  of  his  Administration,  President  Johnson  and  Congress 
were  continually  quarreling  over  matters  like  these.    In  his 
anger  he  began  to  discharge  all  those  men  holding  import 
ant  Federal  offices  who  were  not  of  his  way  of  thinking. 
Most  of  the  Presidents  before  him,  since  Jackson's  time,  had 
turned  out  officeholders  for  a  like  cause,  and  Congress  had  * 
said  nothing.     But  Congress  became  intensely  indignant 
upon  being  called  by  Johnson  "  a  factious,  domineering,  and 
tyrannical"   body  which   persisted   "in   breaking  up   the 
Union  ";  and  it  also  wanted  to  protect  the  Federal  officers 
who  were  carrying  out  the  Reconstruction  Act.   It  therefore 
passed  a  law  called  the  Tenure-of-Office  Act,  which  forbade 
the  President  to  discharge  government  employees  without  • 
the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

364.  The  President  is  impeached.    President    Johnson 
soon  showed  his  contempt  for  Congress  by  removing  the 
Secretary  of  War,  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  and  thus  disobey- 

1  Tennessee  had  been  readmitted  in  March,  1866. 


398      THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

ing  ^the  Tenure-of-Office  Act.  This  brought  the  matter  to  a 
crisis.  Congress  now  impeached l  the  President,  in  1868,  for 
misdemeanor  in  office,  and  he  was  tried  before  the  Senate. 
He  was,  however,  acquitted  by  a  close  vote. 
^  365-  Carpetbag  government  in  the  South.  Affairs  in  the 
Southern  States  grew  far  worse  after  the  Fifteenth  Amend 
ment  was  put  in  force.  In  those  States  where  the  black 
voters  outnumbered  the  whites, 2  the  legislatures  were  made 
up  almost  wholly  of  former  slaves.  Many  of  these  men 
were  densely  ignorant  as  well  as  dishonest,  and  nearly  all 
the  officers  appointed  by  them,  including  even  the  judges, 
were  of  the  same  sort.3 

Numbers  of  rascally  Northern  white  men,  called  "  carpet 
baggers,"  4  went  into  the  South  and  easily  got  control  of 
.the  negro  legislators.  They  persuaded  them  that  their  old 
masters  —  hundreds  of  whom  were  disfranchised  because 
of  having  been  Confederate  officers  —  were  plotting  to  get 
them  all  back  again  into  slavery.  They  made  the  black 
voters  believe  that  their  only  hope  was  to  elect  as  their 
leading  officers  white  men  from  the  North  —  the  North 
having  given  them  their  freedom.  The  vain  and  inex 
perienced  negroes  were  easily  flattered  by  these  designing 
Northerners,  who  seemed  to  take  so  great  an  interest  in 
them,  and  they  did  as  they  were  told. 

The  carpetbaggers  and  the  corrupt  negro  politicians 
conspired  together  and  plundered  the  State  treasuries  in 
every  way  they  could  think  of.  They  voted  to  themselves 
large  salaries  and  all  sorts  of  luxuries.  They  also  bought 
supplies  for  the  government  offices  and  institutions,  or  con 
tracted  to  erect  public  buildings,  at  extravagant  prices; 

1  To  impeach  is  to  accuse.  Under  the  Constitution,  the  House  of  Represent 
atives  brings  in  the  charges,  and  the  Senate  acts  as  the  Court. 

2  This  region  is  called  "the  black  belt." 

3  In  South  Carolina  there  were  two  hundred  negro  judges  who  could  not 
read  or  write. 

4  In  those  days,  the  ordinary  valise  was  a  large  hand-bag  made  of  carpet. 
The  white  Northerners  who  got  the  Southern  State  governments  into  their  hands 
came  into  the  South  as  strangers,  with  their  carpetbags.    Hence  they  were  com 
monly  called  "carpetbaggers." 


THE  ATLANTIC   CABLE 


399 


and  they  pocketed  their  part  of  the  profits  which  the  dealers 
or  contractors  shared  with  them.  By  these  and  scores  of 
other  dishonest  methods  many  of  the  carpetbaggers  and 
their  negro  conspirators  quickly  grew  rich. 

In  order  to  raise  money  for  all  this  corruption,  large  is 
sues  of  bonds  were  voted  by  the  legislatures,  and  very  high 
taxes  were  levied.  These  taxes  were  chiefly  raised  from  the 
property  of  the  dis 
franchised  class,  who 
really  were  the  lead 
ing  citizens.  In  the 
legislatures  where 
the  blacks  were  in  the 
majority  there  were 
frequently  scenes  of 
great  disorder.  Ev 
erywhere  public  af 
fairs  were  shocking 
ly  mismanaged.  The 
negroes,  now  that  the 
power  was  in  their 
hands,  were  glad  to 
wreak  vengeance  in 
this  way  on  the  men 
who  had  once  be^n 
their  owners. 

These  conditions  could  not  possibly  last.  There  came 
a  time  when  the  white  men  of  the  South  decided  to  drive 
out  the  carpetbaggers  and  to  take  away  the  political 
power  of  the  negroes.  In  this  attempt  they  were  successful ; 
but  their  methods  were  often  harsh  and  cruel.1 

366.  The  Atlantic  Cable.  In  1858  a  telegraph  cable  had 

1  A  great  and  widespread  secret  society,  called  the  Ku-Klux-Klan,  was  or 
ganized.  Its  members  went  about  at  night  heavily  armed  and  disguised  by 
masks  and  white  robes.  They  flogged  and  sometimes  killed  the  terrified  negro 
leaders,  and  carpetbaggers  were  forced  to  flee  from  the  country.  For  several 
years  these  operations  turned  the  black  belt  into  a  condition  of  anarchy.  At 
last  the  Ku-Klux-Klan  was  broken  up  by  Federal  authorities. 


LANDING  THE  ATLANTIC  CABLE  ON 
NEWFOUNDLAND 

The  steamship  is  the  Great  Eastern.  This  ship,  launched  in  1858, 
was  the  largest  of  her  time,  displacing  32,000  tons.  Her  best 
record  across  the  Atlantic  was  11  days.  The  largest  ships  of 
the  present  time  (66,000  tons)  make  the  passage  in  about  5  days 


400      THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

been  laid  from  Newfoundland  to  Ireland,  a  distance  of 
seventeen  hundred  miles.  For  three  weeks  it  did  its  work, 
and  hundreds  of  messages  were  sent  between  the  two  con 
tinents  through  this  great  wire  lying  along  the  bottom  of  the 
sea.  Then  it  unfortunately  broke,  and  for  eight  years  we 
had  no  further  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe. 
At  last  the  important  enterprise  was  carried  to  success  in 
1866.  It  was  originated  by  an  American  company  of  which 
Cyrus  W.  Field  was  the  leader.1  There  are  now  cables 
stretching  across  the  floors  of  every  ocean.  They  enable 
the  daily  papers  of  both  hemispheres  to  print  the  latest  news 
from  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

367.  Our  foreign  relations.  In  1867  the  United  States 
purchased  from  Russia  the  great  region  of  Alaska,  which 
comprises  nearly  six  hundred  thousand  square  miles  in  the 
extreme  northwest  corner  of  our  continent.  The  price  we 
paid  for  it  was  $7,200,000,  or  a  trifle  less  than  two  cents  an 
acre.  But  Alaska  was  then  supposed  to  be  a  snow-clad 
waste,  inhabited  only  by  a  few  Indians,  and  therefore  worth 
almost  nothing,  except  for  the  fur  trade  and  some  seal  fish 
eries  along  the  shores  of  its  outlying  islands.  Russia  had 
wanted  to  get  rid  of  it,  however,  and  as  she  had  been  the 
friend  of  the  Union  in  the  Civil  War,  none  of  our  people  very 
seriously  objected;  although  a  few  Congressmen  grumbled 
a  little  at  "  adding  a  refrigerator  to  the  United  States." 
Later,  important  discoveries  were  made  in  Alaska  of  gold, 
coal,  and  other  valuable  deposits.  These,  and  its  splendid 
forests  and  fisheries,  have  made  our  far  northwestern  ter 
ritory  of  great  value  to  the  nation. 

1  Mr.  Field  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  in  1819,  and  died  in  1872.  He  was 
a  merchant,  but  early  became  interested  in  ocean  telegraphy.  He  would  have 
sooner  repaired  his  broken  cable  of  1858,  but  during  the  Givil  War  he  could  not 
borrow  the  large  sums  of  money  that  he  needed.  In  1865  he  tried  a  second  time 
and  laid  twelve  hundred  miles,  when  the  cable  again  broke.  Undaunted,  he 
tried  a  third  time  and  succeeded.  A  great  English  statesman,  John  Bright, 
said  that  Mr.  Field  was  the  "Columbus  of  modern  times,  who,  by  his  cable,  had 
moored  the  New  World  alongside  of  the  Old."  In  1903  Americans  opened  the 
first  cable  between  the  United  States  and  Asia;  this  completed  a  telegraphic 
circuit  around  the  world  and  realized  the  dream  of  the  inventor  Morse,  who 
had  vainly  hoped  that  he  might  live  to  see  this  done. 


OUR  FOREIGN   RELATIONS  40* 

An  interesting  episode  of  Johnson's  Administration  was 
in  connection  with  Mexico.  Emperor  Napoleo^  III  of 
France  sympathized  with  the  South  during  the  Civil  War 
and  allowed  the  Confederates  to  buy  and  shelter  their  ves 
sels  in  French  ports.  Later,  taking  advantage  of  a  time 
when  the  United  States  could  not  interfere,  he  ignored  our 
Monroe  Doctrine  by  overthrowing  the  Mexican  Republic, 
and  establishing  as  emperor  of  that  country  Archduke 
Maximilian  of  Austria.  But  when  our  war  was  over  the 
United  States  threatened  to  invade  Mexico  and  turn  Maxi 
milian  out.  The  French  troops  thereupon  promptly  with 
drew  and  left  poor  Maximilian  to  his  fate.  He  was  captured 
and  shot  by  the  Mexicans,  who  at  once  reestablished  their 
republic. 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Find  out  in  which  States  the  negro  population  outnumbers  the  white 
and  in  what  proportion. 

2.  State  the  provisions  of  each  of  the  three  amendments  to  the  Constitu 
tion  respecting  the  negro.   (Consult  Appendix  F.) 

3.  Name  some  unusual  difficulties  which  confronted  the  President  and 
Congress  in  regard  to  reconstruction. 

4.  What  means  did  the  South  use  to  protect  itself  against  the  results 
of  the  reconstruction  policy? 

5.  What  questions  have  arisen  of  late  in  regard  to  the  resources  of 
Alaska? 

6.  What  characteristic  do  you  admire   most  in  Cyrus  W.  Field?    Name 
some  other  great  leaders  who  have  shown  the  same  trait. 

7.  Make  a  list  of  the   most  important  events  connected  with  slavery,, 
from  the  beginning,  with  names  of  leaders,  dates,  etc.   (See  "  Slavery  " 
in  the  Index.) 

8.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  letter  from  a  Southern  white  man,  describing  conditions  under 
carpetbag  government. 

2.  Write  two  articles  about  Alaska  —  one  in  1867,  as  it  was  supposed  to 
be,  and  one  at  the  present  time,  as  it  is  known  to  be. 

3.  Write  a  brief  account  of  the  unusually  important  events  of  Johnson's 
Administration. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE  WEST,  AND  THE  PANIC   OF    1873 

1869-1877 

%, 

368.  Election  of  President  Grant.  General  Grant  had  been 
so  successful  in  the  war  that  at  the  close  of  the  conflict  he 
was  the  popular  hero  of  the  North,  and  the  people  elected 
him  the  eighteenth  President  of  the  United  States.    He  was 
inaugurated  in  the  spring  of  1869  and  in  1872  was  reelected 
for  a  second  term.1 

369.  Reconstruction  completed.  By  1870  the  last  of  the 
eleven  seceding  States  had  promised  to  obey  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Amendments  to  the  Constitution.   The  next 
year  every    State  was  for  the  first  time  since  i860  fully 
represented  in  both  houses  of  Congress.    Not  until  then 
was  the  reconstruction  of  the  Union  complete.2 

370.  The  Alabama  Claims.  The  United  States  was  much 
displeased  at  the  conduct  of  Great  Britain  during  the  Civil 
War.   The  Alabama  and  several  other  Confederate  cruisers 
had  been  openly  bought,  fitted  out,  and  sheltered  in  English 
ports.   It  was  the  duty  of  the  British  Government,  as  a  neu- 

1  Ulysses  S.  Grant  was  a  native  of  Ohio,  born  in  1822.    He  graduated  from 
West  Point  and  won  distinction  in  the  Mexican  War.   He  left  the  army,  how 
ever,  and  joined  his  father  in  the  leather  business  at  Galena,  Illinois.    At  the 
opening  of  the  Civil  War  he  became  colonel  of  an  Illinois  regiment  of  volun 
teers.   He  soon  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  was 
put  in  charge  of  the  forces  at  Cairo.    He  later  became  a  major-general,  first  of 
volunteers  and  then  in  the  regular  army,  and  after  that  was  in  command  of 
all  the  armies  of  the  Union.   His  title  was  lieutenant-general,  since,  under  the 
Constitution,  the  President  is  the  commander-in-chief. 

2  In  1872  Congress  granted  amnesty  to  all  Southerners  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  war,  except  from  three  to  five  hundred  of  their  leaders.  The  pardoned 
men  now  had  all  the  rights  of  Federal  citizenship  the  same  as  Northerners. 
Complete  and  final  amnesty  to  those  heretofore  unpardoned  was  granted  by  the 
Federal  Government  in  1898. 


404      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

tral  nation,  to  have  prevented  this  assistance  on  the  part  of 
its  citizens.  Yet  it  had  not  lifted  a  hand  to  stop  such  pro 
ceedings,  and  these  cruisers  had  captured  and  destroyed 
hundreds  of  Union  ships  and  their  valuable  cargoes.  When 
the  war  closed,  the  United  States  asked  Great  Britain  to 
recompense  the  owners  of  these  lost  merchant  ships  and 
their  cargoes.  A  demand  like  this  might  easily  have  led 
to  another  war.  But  in  1871  the  two  powers  sensibly  agreed 
to  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  Under  this,  the  "Alabama 
Claims,"  as  they  were  called,  were  —  together  with  several 
other  disputes  between  America  and  Great  Britain  —  sub 
mitted  to  a  Tribunal  of  Arbitration,  which  met  the  same 
year  at  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This  tribunal  decided  that 
Great  Britain  should  pay  the  American  owners  $15,500,000 
in  damages,  which  amount  was  promptly  handed  over  to 
them,  and  the  two  nations  continued  at  peace.1  Thus  was 
set  a  splendid  example  of  international  arbitration  that 
has  since  often  been  followed  by  our  own  and  by  other 
countries. 

371.  The  development  of  the  West.  The  West,  particu 
larly  the  Mississippi  Valley,  developed  rapidly  during  and 
just  after  the  war.  The  spread  of  population  westward  was 
greatly  aided  by  the  introduction  of  labor-saving  farm  ma 
chinery.  These  inventions  made  it  easy  for  settlers  from  the 
Eastern  States  and  Europe  to  open  and  operate  farms  on  the 
prairies  and  in  the  forests  of  the  great  valley.  Congress  also 
helped  this  expansion  in  two  important  ways :  — 

(a)  By  the  Homestead  Act,  in  1862.  Under  this  law  a 
man  and  his  family  might  "  preempt "  one  hundred  and 
sixty  acres  of  Western  land  belonging  to  the  Federal  Gov 
ernment.  If  he  continued  to  live  upon  it  and  cultivate  it 
for  five  years,  the  land  became  his  property  free  of  charge, 

1  Other  questions  settled  by  the  Treaty  of  Washington  were:  (a)  An  adjust 
ment  of  our  northwest  boundary,  between  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
German  Emperor  was  asked  to  decide  as  to  the  correct  line  through  the  Straits 
of  Fuca.  His  decision  was  in  favor  of  the  Americans,  but  was  satisfactory 
to  both  sides,  (b)  A  commission  was  appointed  to  settle  disputes  between 
Canadian  and  American  fishermen,  as  to  their  rights  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
and  the  shores  of  Newfoundland. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WEST 


405 


except  for  a  small  fee.1  This  generous  law  brought  throngs 
of  enterprising  pioneers  into  the  West. 

(b)  By  the  gift  (1862-64)  of  large  tracts  of  land  and  the 
loan  of  millions  of  dollars  in  money  to  the  Union  Pacific 
and  Central  Pacific  transcontinental  railways  to  induce 
them  to  build  across  the  thinly  settled  plains.2 

At  that  time  railway  lines  extended  from  the  Atlantic 
Coast  as  far  west  as  Omaha.  If  a  traveler  wanted  to  go  be 
yond  that  city  he  must  do  so  by  the  overland  stages  along 
the  California  and  Oregon  wagon-trails.  But  the  growth 
of.  Western  popu 
lation  had  now 
made  it  neces 
sary  to  give  the 
people  better 
means  of  trans 
portation  to  and 
from  the  region 
beyond  the  Mis 
souri  River.  The 
Union  Pacific  be 
gan  its  line  at 
Omaha  and  built 
westward.  In 

most  places  it  closely  followed  the  old  wagon-trail  as  far  as 
the  mountains.  At  the  same  time  the  Central  Pacific  was 
being  built  eastward  from  San  Francisco,  which  is  nearly 
two  thousand  miles  from  Omaha.  In  May,  1869,  the  two 
construction  parties  met  each  other  near  Ogden,Utah,  and 
there,  in  the  presence  of  a  large  crowd  of  spectators,  con- 

1  Between  1830  and  1862  any  man  who   actually  settled  on  government 
land  might  buy  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  it  for  $1.25  an  acre.    The  new 
law  gave  the  land  free  to  such  settlers. 

2  In  later  years  Congress  also  aided  in  this  manner  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
Northern  Pacific,  Texas  Pacific,  and  Southern  Pacific  lines;  and  from  time  to 
time  it  gave  Federal  lands  very  freely  to  several  shorter  lines  in  the  West.  The 
Government  has,  altogether,    given  more  public  land  to  aid  the  builders  of 
wagon-roads,  canals,  and  railways  than  was  contained  in  the  thirteen  original 
States  of  the  Union. 


A  contemporary  lithograph 

AN   EXPRESS    STAGE   IN    THE    FAR  WEST 


406      THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

nected  their  tracks  by  the  driving  of  a  golden  spike.1  Thus 
was  completed  the  laying  of  the  first  continuous  railway 
line  across  the  North  American  continent. 

East  and  West  were  now  more  effectually  united  than 
ever  before.  The  most  immediate  effect  was  greatly  to  hasten 
the  settlement  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  of  the  broad  plains 
lying  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.    Pioneers  from 
the  Atlantic  Coast  with  their  families,  farm  utensils,  and  live 
stock  might  hereafter  reach  the  Far  Western  country,  the  trip 
requiring  about  a  week,  much  more  easily  and  quickly  than 
their  fathers  and  grandfathers,  fifty  years  before,  could  have 
reached  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin  by  means  of 
the  Erie  Canal  and  the  Great  Lakes,  or  by  the  Ohio  River. 
Tens  of  thousands  of  earnest,  hard-working  men  and  women 
now  poured  into  the  country  beyond  the  Missouri  River  and 
divided  it  into  farms.    Others  discovered  there  new  mines 
of  gold,  silver,  and  coal.    Frontier  hamlets,  such  as  Omaha, 
Kansas  City,  and  Denver,  grew  into  flourishing  cities  with 
almost  the  speed  of  mushrooms.    Factories  were  opened. 
New  and  rich  States  were  formed2  where  only  a  few  years 
before  were  Indian  camps,  villages  of   prairie   dogs,    and 
roving  herds  of  buffalo  and  antelope  feeding  on  the  grasses 
of  the  plains.     Within  a  single  generation,  or  about  thirty 
years,  a  large  part  of  the  once-dreaded  "  American  Desert  " 
was  transformed  into  a  land  of  peace,  industry,  and  plenty. 
One  of  the  most  important  methods  of  developing  this 
vast  region  has  been  artificial  irrigation  of  large  areas  where 
there  is  not  enough  rainfall  to  moisten  the  ground  for  crops. 
This  has  been  done  on  a  large  scale  by  individuals  and  cor 
porations;  but  in  1902  the  Federal  Government  itself  began 
to  aid  in  the  work.   Its  engineers  are  now  building  and  oper 
ating  for  the  settlers  enormous  dams,  tunnels,  canals,  and 
pumping- works.3   The  time  is  soon  coming  when  large  por- 

1  The  spike  is  now  in  the  museum  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  at 
Palo  Alto,  California. 

2  Kansas  in  1861,  Nevada  in  1864,  Nebraska  in  1867,  and  Colorado  in  1876. 

3  In  1910,  the  Federal  Government  opened  at  Cody,  Wyoming,  the  Shoshone 
Dam,  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world.  The  Roosevelt  Dam,  in  Arizona,  an- 


PANICS  AND   LABOR  TROUBLES 


407 


tions  of  this  so-called  desert  will  be  among  the  best  farm 
ing  districts  known  to  mankind. 

Four  millions  of  prosperous  people  now  inhabit  the  Pacific 
Slope.  For  a  long  time  gold  and  silver  were  thought  to  be 
its  chief  products.  But 
now  there  are  other  and 
quite  as  profitable  out 
puts  —  lumber,  wheat, 
and  apples  in  the  north, 
and  lemons,  oranges, 
grapes,  and  nuts  in  the 
south.  Together  with 
these  industries,  the  de 
lightful  climate  of  that 
region  each  year  at 
tracts  from  the  Eastern 
States  hundreds  of  thou- 

The  water  stored  in  the  basin  formed  by  this  dam  irri 
gates  270,000  acres  of  arid  land  in  Arizona.  The  supply 
is  secured  from  the  Verde  and  Salt  Rivers.  Dimensions 
of  dam:  height,  284  feet  (in  this  view  100  ieet  are  below 
the  water) ;  length,  bottom,  235  feet,  top,  1080;  thickness, 


bottom,  176  feet,  top,  16 


THE   ROOSEVELT   DAM 

sands  of  persons  seeking 

health     and    pleasure.1 

Los    Angeles    and    San 

Diego  are  fast-growing 

and  beautiful  cities  in  the  midst  of  the  "  climate  and  fruit 

belt";  and  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Portland,  and  San  Francisco 

have   become   important   ports  for  a  growing  commerce 

with  other  lands  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  —  South 

America,  Asia,  and  Australia. 

372.  Panics  and  labor  troubles,  1873-1877.  The  quick 
growth  of  the  West  led  to  much  speculation  in  that  region 
during  the  years  just  following  the  war.  A  great  deal  of  this 
speculation  was  in  farming  lands  and  city  lots.  Many  people 
made  money  from  the  rapid  advance  in  the  values  of  land; 
but  thousands  of  others  paid  more  for  their  farms  and  lots 
than  they  could  sell  them  for.  There  were  also  more  mines 

other  Federal  undertaking,  was  opened  by  ex-President  Roosevelt  in  1911.  It 
is  claimed  that  this  is  the  second  largest  dam  ever  built. 

1  The  Pacific  Slope  has  several  varieties  of  climate,  ranging  from  the  English- 
like  weather  of  Washington  and  Oregon  to  the  almost  tropical  conditions  of 
Southern  California. 


408      THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

opened  and  factories  and  railroads  built  throughout  the  en 
tire  country  than  could  as  yet  pay  a  profit.  And  prices  of  all 
manner  of  property  were  unnecessarily  high,  for  the  country 
was  still  flooded  with  the  paper  money  that  had  been  issued 
by  the  Federal  Government  during  the  Civil  War.  The  result 
was  a  disastrous  financial  panic  that  visited  this  country  in 
1873.  There  were  a  large  number  of  failures  both  East  and 
West,  and  great  distress  among  merchants,  manufacturers, 
and  investors.  Thousands  of  men  and  women  lost  every 
dollar  they  owned,  and  laboring  people  were  thrown  out  of 
work  in  every  city  in  the  land.  About  six  years  passed  before 
the  United  States  again  had  good  times. 

During  the  hard  times  that  followed  the  panic,  fac 
tories  and  railroads  made  very  little  profit  —  many  of  them 
made  none  at  all.  Their  managers  therefore  threatened  to 
lower  the  wages  of  employees.  But  the  railroad  men  work 
ing  on  lines  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  refused  to  work 
for  less  pay,  and  went  on  strike  (July,  1877).  For  two 
weeks  all  trains  stood  still,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the 
entire  nation.  When  the  companies  tried  to  put  new  men 
in  the  places  left  by  the  strikers,  the  latter  began  rioting 
and  destroyed  $10,000,000  worth  of  property  —  locomotives, 
cars,  tracks,  roundhouses,  freight  houses,  and  stations. 
Federal  troops  were  used  to  restore  order,  and  then  the 
railroads  were  able  to  resume  business. 

While  these  events  were  happening  there  were  similar 
strikes  by  thousands  of  coal-miners  and  factory  hands.  They 
were  friendly  to  the  railroad  men,  and  would  not  work  for 
companies  that  shipped  goods  over  the  offending  lines. 
When  the  railway  trouble  ended,  these  disturbances  also 
ceased.1 

373.  The  Centennial  Exposition.  In  1876  there  was  held 

1  A  labor  disturbance  of  another  sort  broke  out  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  This 
was  a  protest  of  American  workmen  against  competition-  from  Chinese  labor 
ers,  who  had  been  coming  into  this  country  in  large  numbers  and  working  for 
smaller  wages  than  those  on  which  our  people  could  live.  There  were  several 
fierce  riots  in  San  Francisco  and  Chinamen  were  roughly  treated.  After  long 
agitation  Congress  passed  the  first  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  in  1882.  This  forbade 
any  more  Chinese  laborers  from  entering  the  United  States. 


THE   CENTENNIAL  EXPOSITION  409 

in  Philadelphia  a  great  Centennial  Exposition  or  World's 
Fair;  it  was  in  honor  of  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Enormous  crowds  of  visitors 
came  from  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world.  The  Centennial 
had  two  important  results:  - 

(a)  It  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  work  of  mankind 
was  now  largely  being  done  by  machinery.  Nearly  all  of  the 
useful  inventions  that  had  been  made  in  the  twenty-five 
years  previous  to  the  fair,  tended  toward  making  life  more 
pleasant  and  enabled  men  to  perform  many  times  as  much 
work  as  formerly.    Americans  saw  with  pride  that  a  large 
share  of  such  devices  had  had  their  origin  in  the  United 
States,  and  this  stimulated  their  patriotism. 

(b)  Never  before  in  this  country  had  so  many  artistic 
objects  from  all  lands  been  assembled  at  o'ne  time  and  place. 
The  display  made  a  deep  impression  on  Americans.    From 
that  time  onward  they  aimed  to  make  their  homes  more 
attractive   than  before  —  in  architecture,   furniture,   and 
household  decorations.1 

1  While  the  Centennial  was  helping  the  cause  of  peace  throughout  the  world, 
we  were  engaged  in  an  Indian  war.  Gold  miners  in  the  Black  Hills  had  driven 
the  Sioux  from  that  region  to  Montana;  but  the  United  States  wanted  the 
tribesmen  to  live  only  on  their  reservations,  which  they  refused  to  do.  When 
General  Custer,  a  brave  and  dashing  cavalry  leader,  attacked  them  on  the 
Little  Bighorn  River  in  southern  Montana,  at  the  head  of  less  than  300  men, 
their  3000  warriors,  under  Crazy  Horse,  Rain-in-the-Face,  and  Sitting  Bull, 
killed  him  and  all  of  his  troopers.  See  Longfellow's  poem,  Revenge  of  Rain-in-the- 
Face.  Soon  after  this  massacre  the  Indians  were  conquered  and  many  of  them 
fled  to  Canada. 

In  the  autumn  of  1871  there  were  several  terrible  conflagrations  in  the  West. 
At  Chicago  flames  destroyed  18,000  buildings  having  a  total  value  of  $200,000- 
ooo.  About  the  same  time  widespread  forest  fires  raged  in  Wisconsin,  Michi 
gan,  and  Minnesota.  These  wrought  enormous  loss  of  property  in  standing 
treesandsawed  lumber.  Several  villages  in  the  woods  were  completely  destroyed, 
hundreds  of  settlers  lost  their  lives,  and  thousands  were  crippled.  The  next 
year  (1872)  Boston  suffered  from  an  $80,000,000  fire  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

Another  event  of  1871  was  the  unearthing  of  a  gang  of  thieving  officeholders 
in  New  York  City,  led  by  W.  M.  Tweed,  political  "boss"  of  the  city.  The 
"Tweed  Ring"  robbed  the  public  treasury  of  about  $160,000,000,  largely 
through  fraudulent  contracts.  Tweed  died  in  prison  in  1878. 


410      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  Presidents  who  had  been  in  military  life  before  their  election. 
Discuss  the  question  whether  such  military  experience  fits  a  man  for 
the  presidency. 

2.  Name  the  causes  which  led  to  the  growth  of  the  West.  Of  these;  which 
was  the  most  important,  and  why?  Review  from  the  beginning  the 
various  migrations  to  the  West.    (See  "Western  Migration"  in  the 
Index.) 

3.  Trace  on  the  map  the  route  of  the  first  transcontinental  railroad. 
Indicate  on  a  map  of  the  United  States  the  other  principal  railroad 
routes  connecting  the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Pacific  Coast. 

4.  What  great  natural  resources  are  found  in  our  Western  States  that 
promote    the  growth   of  that   section?     What  is  the  United  States 
Government  doing  to  promote  this  growth? 

5.  What  were  some  of  the  causes  of  the  panic  of  1873?  Contrast  this  panic 
with  others  in  our  history. 

6.  Locate  the  cities  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

7.  Contrast  the  arts  and  inventions  shown  at  the  Centennial  with  those 
that  you  think  will  probably  be  shown  at  the  World's  Fair  at  San 
Francisco  in  1915. 

8.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  A  family  moves  from  Connecticut  to  central  New  York  in  1810.    A 
son  of  the  family  moves  to  eastern  Nebraska  in  1860.  His  son  removes 
to  Oregon  in  1910.   Contrast  the  methods  of  travel  in  each  of  the  mi 
grations. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  girl  whose  father  is  a  homesteader  in  Dakota. 
Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  "back  East"  in  which  you  describe  your  new 
home. 

3.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  spectator  at  the  historic  scene  near  Ogden  in 
1869.  Write  a  letter  in  which  you  describe  the  event. 


CHAPTER   XL 

THE  END  OF  CARPETBAG   GOVERNMENT   IN   THE   SOUTH,   AND 
THE    RESUMPTION    OF    SPECIE    PAYMENTS 

1877-1881 

374.  The  election  of  President  Hayes.  As  a  result  of  the 
national  election  held  in  November,  1876,  the  presidential 
electors  gave  one  more  vote  for  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  the  Re 
publican  candidate  for  President,  than  was  given  to  Samuel 
J.  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate.  The  Democrats  com 
plained  at  this.  They  declared  that  Tilden  should  be  the 
President;  for  in  reality,  they  said,  the  people  of  the  several 
States  had  chosen  more  Democratic  electors,  pledged  to 
vote  for  him,  than  they  had  Republican,  pledged  to  vote 
for  Hayes.  They  charged  that  the  Republican  State  offi 
cials  who  superintended  the  voting  in  South  Carolina, 
Florida,  and  Louisiana  —  which  were  still  being  ruled  by 
carpetbaggers  —  had  practiced  fraud ;  and  had  wrongly  cer 
tified  to  the  election  of  Hayes  electors  from  those  States, 
when  actually  the  Tilden  men  had  a  majority. 

Each  party  now  became  violently  bitter  against  the  other. 
For  a  time  the  excitement  was  so  great  that  some  timid 
people  feared  that  the  Democratic  South  might  break  out 
into  war  against  the  Republican  North.  In  order  to  settle 
the  troublesome  question  Congress  appointed  an  Electoral 
Commission.  This  body  consisted  of  five  members  of  the 
Federal  Supreme  Court,  five  Senators,  and  five  Represent 
atives.  The  Commission  listened  to  all  of  the  testimony  and 
then  decided,  by  a  vote  of  8  to  7,  that  Hayes  had  honestly 
won  the  election.  The  decision  keenly  disappointed  the 
Democrats.  But  in  common  with  all  other  Americans,  these 
men  had  a  deep  respect  for  law  and  order.  They  remembered 
Washington's  warning,  in  his  Farewell  Address,  "  against 


412      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

the  baneful  effects  of  party  spirit. ' '  Accordingly  they  ceased 
their  opposition,  and  Hayes  was  peacefully  inaugurated  in 
March,  1877. l 

375.  The  end  of  carpetbag  government  in  the  South.  One 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  President  was  to  withdraw  Fed 
eral  troops  from  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Louisiana. 
The  soldiers  had  not  been  entirely  successful  in  securing 
for  the  former  slaves  their  rights  under  the  Fourteenth  and 
Fifteenth  Constitutional  Amendments ;  and  the  presence  of 
the  military  created  among  the  whites  a  great  deal  of  bitter 
ness  and  unrest.  President  Hayes  thought  that  the  South 
would  never  be  able  to  regain  industrial  prosperity  until  its 
white  citizens  were  allowed  to  manage  their  local  political 
affairs  in  their  own  way. 

Thousands  of  Northerners  sharply  criticized  his  with 
drawal  of  the  army.  They  felt  that  the  Federal  President 
ought  with  all  his  power  to  force  the  Southerners  to  allow 
negroes  to  vote  and  to  hold  office ;  but  many  others  in  the 
North  just  as  firmly  believed  that  the  President  was  right. 
Of  course  the  South  heartily  welcomed  the  change.  It  had 
these  three  results:  - 

(a)  It  put  an  end  to  the  corrupt  rule  of  the  carpetbaggers. 
These  men  could  not  remain  in  office  without  the  negro 
vote;  and  only  a  small  part  of  that  vote  could  be  cast  unless 
the  troops  kept  guard  over  the  polling  places. 

(b)  It  left  the  political  control  of  the  South  in  the  hands 
of  the  whites.     They  were  now  free  to  settle  the  "  color 
question  "  in  their  own  way. 

(c)  It  prepared  the  way  for  a  gradual  renewal  of  friend 
ship  between  the  two  sections. 

376.  The  resumption  of  specie  payments.  During  the 
Civil  War  and  for  a  few  years  after  it,  many  citizens  feared 
that  the  Federal  Government  would  never  be  rich  enough  to 
redeem  in  specie  all  of  its  enormous  issue  of  "  greenbacks." 

1  Hayes  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1822.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  was  three  times  elected  Governor  of  Ohio  before  becoming 
President.  His  cabinet  included  John  Sherman,  the  great  financier,  and  Carl 
Schurz,  the  celebrated  German-American  reformer,  who  was  already  a  leader 
in  the  movement  for  civil  service  reform  (see  p.  415). 


RESUMPTION  OF  SPECIE   PAYMENTS          413 

Therefore,  for  a  long  time  people  could  not  buy  as  much  with 
a  greenback  dollar  as  with  a  gold  dollar.  But  as  the  nation 
kept  growing  stronger,  and  easily  obtained  vast  sums  of 
money  every  year  as  taxes  or  as  custom-house  duties,  there 
was  a  gradual  increase  of  confidence  in  its  ability  to  redeem 
the  paper  money.  After  a  time,  the  man  who  held  a  green 
back  found  that  he  was  able  to  purchase  with  it  at  the 
stores  very  nearly  as  much  as  though  he  carried  with  him 
only  gold  coin.  Consequently,  the  difference  between  these 
two  kinds  of  money  became  very  small,  and  even  this  dif 
ference  was  at  last  removed  by  an  act  of  Congress.  The 
Federal  Treasurer  was  ordered,  after  January  I,  1879,  to 
exchange  all  greenbacks  for  gold  specie,  dollar  for  dollar, 
whenever  any  one  asked  for  such  an  exchange. 

This  action  of  the  Government  was  called  the  "resumption 
of  specie  payments."  It  immediately  restored  our  national 
credit  to  a  sound  condition.  For  just  as  soon  as  people  knew 
that  they  could  get  gold  for  their  greenbacks  any  moment 
they  asked  for  it,  there  ceased  of  course  to  be  any  distinction 
in  value  between  a  dollar  in  paper  and  a  dollar  in  specie. 

377.  Captain  Eads's  Mississippi  jetties.  The  currents  of 
the  Mississippi  River 
and  of  its  great  tribu- 


taries  are  so  strong 
and  swift  that  they 
are  continually  car 
rying  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  enormous 
quantities  of  mud, 
sand,  and  gravel. 
The  Mississippi  has  A  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  STEAMBOAT 

five  mOUths  Or       Boats  of  this  type,  having  a  light  draft,  are  used  on  the  rivet 

for  transporting  both  passengers  and  freight 

passes.     When  the 

great  current  is  divided  among  all  these,  it  slows  down,  and 
then  the  material  which  it  carries  sinks  to  the  bottom 
and  forms  great  sand  bars.  By  1875  the  bars  had  become 
so  large  as  to  interfere  with  navigation.  Deep-draft  boats 


4H      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

could  with  difficulty  float  over  them,  and  channels  were 
kept  open  only  by  continual  and  costly  dredging. 

In  that  year  Congress  voted  money  for  carrying  out  a  pro 
posal  of  Captain  Eads,  a  St.  Louis  engineer,1  for  putting  a 
stop  to  this  continual  obstruction  and  expense.  Eads's  plan 
was  to  narrow  the  channel  at  South  Pass,  which  is  one  of 
the  outlets  of  the  river,  by  building  along  its  sides  artificial 
banks  or  "  jetties."  His  object  was  to  force  the  current  to 
go  through  that  channel  more  swiftly  than  it  had  gone  before ; 
then,  he  said,  the  s.and  would  be  carried  out  with  a  rush  to 
the  deeper  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  would  give 
no  more  trouble.  This  was  a  bold  and  magnificent  idea, 
worthy  of  a  great  engineer.  When  he  was  able  to  put  it  in 
practice,  it  proved  entirely  successful.  After  1879  there  was 
no  further  difficulty  with  the  sand  bars,  and  New  Orleans 
could  then  easily  be  reached  by  large  trans- Atlantic  steamers. 2 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  disputed  claim  to  the  presidency  in  1876? 
What  would  prevent  a  similar  dispute  now?    (See  page  423.) 

2.  Why  was  President  Hayes's  withdrawal  of  the  troops  from  the  South 
an  act  of  courage?    Name  other  similar  acts  of  moral  courage  on  the 
part  of  our  Presidents. 

3.  What  race  questions  have  confronted  the  people  of  the  United  States? 
Use  a  map  in  this  discussion. 

4.  Why  is  a  paper  dollar  at  present  of  as  much  value  as  a  gold  or  silver 
dollar? 

5.  Explain  by  means  of  blackboard  drawings  the  Mississippi  jetties.  What 
is  the  "deep  waterways"  movement? 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  Southerner.  Write  a  letter  to  President  Hayes, 
thanking  him  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  troops. 

2.  Let  each  of  five  members  of  the  class  describe  an  event  of  importance 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

1  He  was  the  builder  of  the  first  steel  arch  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  at 
that  city. 

2  Eads  secured  a  channel  thirty  feet  deep  over  a  sand  bar  that  before  this  im 
provement  had  only  about  eight  feet  of  water  above  it.    In  later  years  South 
west  Pass  was  improved  in  a  similar  manner. 


CHAPTER   XLI 

CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM:  THE  NEW  SOUTH  AND  ITS  PROSPERITY 

1881-1885 

378.  The  assassination  of  President  Garfield.  James  A. 
Garfield    followed  Hayes  as  President.1    But  he  had  been 
in  office  only  a  few  months  when  he  was  shot  by  a  dis 
appointed  and  half-crazy  office-seeker,  and  died  in  the  fol 
lowing  September. 

A  few  hours  after  the  President's  death  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Vice- President,  Chester  A.  Arthur.2 

379.  Civil  service  reform.  One  of  the  most  important 
reforms  in  the  history  of  the  United  States  Government  was 
brought  about  during  Arthur's  Administration.  For  about 
fifty  years  it  had   been  the  practice  of  party  leaders  to 
reward  the  men  who  had  in  various  ways  aided  the  party  to 
get  into  office,  by  giving  them  positions  in  the  civil  service. 
Usually  when  a  new  President  came  into  power,  the  men 
holding  positions  of  this  sort  were  discharged  and  new 
and  untrained  persons  were  put  in  their  places.  There  were 
serious  disadvantages  in  this  so-called  "  spoils  system  ":  - 

(a)  Changes  were  so  frequent  that  few  of  the  Govern 
ment's  employees  had  time  to  become  skillful  in  their  work. 

1  Garfield  was  born  in  a  lonely  log  cabin   in   Ohio   in    1831.    During  his 
youth  and  early  manhood  he  was  very  poor,  and  at  one  time  earned  his  living 
by  driving  the  horses  of  a  canal-boat.   But  after  this  experience  on  the  towpath 
he  contrived  to  get  an  education  and  graduated  from  Williams  College.     He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Civil  War  and  became  a  major-general.    In  the 
midst  of  the  war  he  was  elected  to  the  Federal  House  of  Representatives,  and 
became  one  of  its  leading  members. 

2  Arthur  was  born  in  Vermont  in    1830.    After  graduating  from  Union 
College  he  was  a  lawyer  in  New  York  City,  but  in  the  early  years  of  the  Civil 
War  also  acted  as  quartermaster-general  of  the  volunteers  from  New  York 
State.    For  several  years 'he  was  at  the  head  of  the  New  York  Custom- House 
(1871-78).    He  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1880.    He  died  in  1886. 


416      THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

There  was,  indeed,  little  encouragement  for  them  to  acquire 
skill,  for  they  were  liable  soon  to  lose  their  places. 

(b)  The  public  business  was  not  likely  to  be  well  done, 
for  few  of  the  officeholders  took  much  pride  in  their  work. 
They  had  been  appointed  because  they  were  successful  in 
politics,  not  because  they  were  well  fitted  to  perform  the 
tasks  for  which  the  Government  paid  them  salaries.  It  was 

a  wasteful  and  unsatisfactory  way 
of  doing  the  work  of  the  nation. 

(c)  The  President,  Senators, 
Representatives,  and  other  lead 
ers  of  the  party  in  power  were 
continually  being  annoyed  by 
men  who  wanted  Federal  posi 
tions —  " office-beggars,"  as  they 
were  called.  The  leaders  should 
have  spent  their  time  in  perform 
ing  the  important  duties  of  their 

JAMES  ABRAMG^FIELD        °Wn    offices ;     instead     of    that,     a 

large  share  of  their  attention  was 
taken  up  by  these  hangers-on.1 

Under  Presidents  Grant  and  Hayes  attempts  were 
made  to  improve  the  methods  of  selecting  persons  for  the 
civil  service;  but  the  attempts  were  not  successful.  The 
assassination  of  President  Garfield,  however,  by  a  disap 
pointed  office-beggar,  called  public  attention  very  strongly 
to  the  evils  of  the  old  system.  Accordingly,  in  1883,  a  Civil 
Service  Reform  Act  was  adopted.  This  provided  for  a 
board  of  commissioners  to  examine  applicants  for  some  of 
the  classes  of  positions  and  to  decide  whether  or  not  they 
were  competent  to  fill  them.  After  that,  the  chief  officials 
were  obliged  to  select  their  assistants  from  among  those 
persons  who  had  passed  such  examinations.  An  assistant 

1  When  the  war  broke  out  President  Lincoln  ought  to  have  been  able  to  spend 
every  wakeful  moment  of  his  time  in  attending  to  public  business.  Instead  of 
that  he  was  bothered  by  office-beggars  almost  every  hour  of  the  day.  He  said  that 
he  felt  "like  a  man  so  busy  in  letting  rooms  in  one  end  of  his  house  that  he 
cannot  stop  to  put  out  the  fire  that  is  burning  at  the  other." 


THE  SOUTH  AND   ITS   PROSPERITY  417 

chosen  in  this  way  could  not  be  discharged  by  his  chief  so 
long  as  he  acted  properly  and  did  his  work  well. 

In  our  time  nearly  all  classes  of  government  employees 
are  placed  under  this  law.  The  result  has  been  a  great  im 
provement  over  the  old  system.  The  chief  officials  no 
longer  spend  much  of  their  time  in  listening  to  appeals  from 
office-hunters.  At  the  same  time  the  efficiency  of  the  em 
ployees  has  been  increased.  And  what  is  also  important, 
every  American  citizen  has  now  an  equal  chance  with  every 
other  citizen  to  hold  a  government  position,  provided  he  is 
fitted  for  it.  A  like  reform  has  also  been  adopted  in  the 
civil  service  systems  of  several  of  our  States  and  large  cities. 

380.  Reduction  in  postage.   In  the  same  year  as  the  be 
ginning  of  civil  service  reform  (1883)  came  a  much- welcomed 
reduction  in  the  rate  of  postage.    During  the  early  years  of 
the  Republic  a  letter  weighing  not  more  than  half  an  ounce 
was  carried  by  the  Government  at  charges  varying  from  six 
to  twenty-five  cents,  according  to  the  distance.    Little  by 
little  these  rates  were  lowered  until  only  three  cents  were 
charged  for  a  letter  of  that  weight  to  all  parts  of  the  United 
States,  near  or  far.    This  rate  was  maintained  for  a  long 
time.  The  law  of  1883  reduced  the  price  to  two  cents.  Two 
years  later  came  a  still  further  benefit.    Instead  of  half 
an  ounce  one  might  thereafter  send  a  full  ounce  weight 
for  the  two-cent  stamp.    Our  letters  are  now  taken  at  this 
low  rate  to  every  American  possession,  no  matter  how  far 
distant,  as  well  as  to  Cuba,  Mexico,  Canada,  and  Great 
Britain;  also,  under  certain  conditions,  to  Germany. 

381.  The  New  South  and  its  prosperity.     The  first  im 
portant  shipment  to  Europe  of  American  cotton  was  made 
in  1784,  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina.    The  one-hun 
dredth  anniversary  of  this  event  was  celebrated  in  1884  at 
New  Orleans  in  a  great  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition.    It 
was  really  an  exhibition  of  all  the  industries  of  the  South, 
and  attracted  many  thousands  of  visitors.1 

1  In  1 88 1  there  had  been  a  celebration  at  Yorktown,  Virginia,  of  the  one- 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  surrender  of  the  British  army  under  Lord  Corn- 


418      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

This  exposition  was  much  of  a  surprise  to  most  Northern 
people.  They  now  saw  that  the  South  had  wonderfully 
changed  of  late  years,  almost  without  their  knowing  it. 
Before  the  war  that  section  had  scarcely  any  other  industry 
than  agriculture.  But  after  the  rule  of  the  carpetbaggers 
ceased  and  good  order  was  restored,  enterprising  men 
opened  in  the  South  great  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  and  built 
there  many  kinds  of  factories,  especially  cotton  mills. 

Places  that  in  old  slave 
days    had    been    sleepy 
little  villages  were  now 
cities,  whose  inhabitants 
were  familiar  with  the 
clang  of  hammers  and 
the    whir    of    spindles. 
The  railways  had  been 
increased,     lengthened, 
and  in  many  ways  im 
proved.    The  great  crop 
of  cotton  had  grown  to 
nearly  three  times  the 
size  of  the  one  picked  in 
the  year  before  the  war.1 
Southerners  deserved 
to  be  proud  of  the  pros 
perity   of   their  region, 
and  to  be  ambitious  for 

its  future.  They  began  to  call  it  by  a  happy  name,  "The 
New  South."  At  last  they  realized  that  slavery  had  long 
kept  them  back,  commercially  and  industrially.  Under  the 
system  of  free  labor  most  of  the  whites  had  by  this  time  won 
back  almost  all  that  they  had  lost  in  the  war;  and  many  of 
them  —  particularly  those  who,  before  the  war,  had  been 
poor  and  had  not  owned  slaves  —  were  much  more  prosper 
ous  than  they  had  ever  been  before. 

vvallis.  France  sent  over  some  of  her  soldiers  and  several  naval  vessels,  and  there 
were  parades,  naval  re-views,  and  the  like,  by  both  nations. 

1  In  1860  it  was  about  5,400,000  bales;  in  our  own  time,  it  occasionally 
reaches  13,000,000. 


A  SOUTHERN   COTTON    FIELD 


THE  PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL  EXPANSION       419 

As  for  the  freed  negroes,  they  too  were  fast  making  pro 
gress.  Good  schools  had  been  provided  for  their  race.1 
Many  were  able  to  acquire  considerable  wealth;  so  that  by 
twenty  years  after  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy  the  former 
slaves  had  added  millions  of  dollars  to  the  assessment  rolls 
of  the  South.2 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Which  Presidents  have  died  in  office? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  reform  in  the  civil  service  ?   What  officeholders  in 
your  community  are  under  civil  service  rules? 

3.  How  has  the  usefulness  of  the  postal  service  of  the  Government  been 
increased  of  late  years? 

4.  Explain  why  the  South  is  more  prosperous  with  free  labor  than  it 
formerly  was  with  slave  labor. 

5.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  and  dramatize  a  morning-hour  at  the  White  House  in  which 
Garfield  receives  a  friend  of  towpath  days,  several  soldiers  who  had 
served  under  him,  and  an  office-seeker. 

2.  Imagine  that   you  lived  in  1881.    Shocked  at  the  assassination  of 
Garfield,  you  write  a  newspaper  editorial  against  the  spoils  system. 

3.  It  is  suggested  that  the  class  write  two  paragraphs,  one  descriptive  of 
the  best  aspects  of  the  Old  South,  and  one  of  the  New  South. 

4.  Peter  Stuyvesant  has  returned  to  New  York.    Write  his  impressions 
as  he  sees  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  the  life  of  the  city. 

1  The  colored  industrial  schools  especially  have  been  very  successful.    The 
Tuskegee  Institute,  in  Alabama,  is  conducted  by  Booker  T.  Washington,  the 
leader  of  the  negro  race  in  America.    At  Hampton,  Virginia,  is  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  a  famous  school  of  this  sort  for  both  negroes 
and  Indians. 

2  Among  the  events  of  the  Arthur  Administration  was  the  opening  (in  1883) 
of  a  suspension  bridge  over  East  River,  connecting  New  York  with  Brooklyn. 
It  cost  $15,000,000,  a  sum  then  thought  to  be  enormous.  There  are  now,  how 
ever,  three  bridges  joining  Manhattan  Island  and  Long  Island.    Besides  these 
overhead  highways,  there  are  several  tunnels,  or  "tubes,"  for  fast  electric 
trains;   some  of  these  run  under  East   River  to  Long   Island,  others  under 
Hudson,  or  North,  River  to  the  New  Jersey  shore. 


CHAPTER   XLII 


RELATIONS    BETWEEN    CAPITAL   AND   LABOR: 
THREE   FAMOUS   LAWS 

1885-1889 

382.  Election  of  President  Cleveland.  For  twenty-four 
years  the  Republicans  had  controlled  the  Federal  Govern 
ment.  But  in  the  autumn  of  1884  the  Democrats  won  the 
presidential  election.  Their  candidate,  Grover  Cleveland,1 

was  inaugurated  in  the   fol 
lowing  March. 

383.  Death  of  General 
Grant.  One  of  the  earliest 
events  of  the  new  Administra 
tion  was  the  death  of  General 
Grant,  which  took  place  near 
Saratoga,  New  York,  in  July, 
1885.2  The  public  funeral  of 
the  great  soldier  was  held  in 
New  York  City.  The  proces 
sion  was  eight  miles  long  and 
passed  between  lines  of  veter 
ans  of  the  Civil  War,  among 

whom  were  many  famous  Confederate  officers.  It  was  the 
most  imposing  spectacle  of  the  kind  that  Americans  had 
ever  seen.  The  body  was  deposited  in  a  temporary  tomb 
in  Riverside  Park,  overlooking  the  Hudson  River,  and  here 
in  after  years  a  beautiful  monument  was  erected. 

1  Cleveland  was  born  in  New  Jersey  in  1837.  His  family  moved  to  New 
York  State  when  he  was  quite  young,  and  he  became  a  lawyer  in  Buffalo.    His 
first  important  public  office  was  that  of  mayor  of  his  city  (1881);  then  he  was 
elected  governor  of  New  York  (1882);  and  two  years  later  President  of  the 
United  States.    He  died  in  1908  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey.     • 

2  He  had  but  recently  completed  his  Memoirs,  a  two-volume  work  telling 
in  a  most  interesting  manner  the  story  of  his  life  down  to  the  close  of  the  war. 


GROVER   CLEVELAND 


THE  AUSTRALIAN   BALLOT  421 

384.  Labor  troubles;  anarchy  in  Chicago.  During  the 
year  1885  and  the  winter  of  1885-86,  there  was  widespread 
dissatisfaction  among  American  workmen.  They  asked  their 
employers  to  shorten  the  number  of  hours  in  a  day's  work, 
to  give  them  better  pay,  and  in  other  ways  to  improve  the 
conditions  of  labor.    But  these  demands  were  not  granted. 
In  the  spring  and  early  summer  of  1886,  therefore,  strikes 
on  railroads  and  street-car  systems  and  in  mines  and  fac 
tories  were  common  all  over  the  thickly  settled  parts  of  the 
country.   Many  of  these  strikes  gave  rise  to  disturbances  in 
which  considerable  property  was  destroyed. 

The  most  violent  outbreak  of  this  kind  occurred  in  Chi 
cago,  where  40,000  men  suddenly  stopped  work  and  crowded 
the  streets  of  the  city,  to  denounce  their  "  bosses  "  for  ap 
parently  having  no  sympathy  with  laborers.  A  band  of  vio 
lent  anarchists1  took  advantage  of  this  uprising  to  make 
speeches  to  the  excited  mobs.  They  advised  their  hearers  to 
abolish  all  forms  of  government  and  to  kill  those  soldiers  and 
policemen  who  attempted  to  interfere  with  them.  One  of 
these  anarchist  meetings  was  held  in  Haymarket  Square, 
but  the  police  broke  it  up.  In  the  turmoil  an  anarchist 
threw  at  the  officers  a  bomb  filled  with  dynamite.  Its  ex 
plosion  killed  several  and  wounded  others.  The  leaders  in 
the  terrible  assault  were  caught  and  four  of  them  were 
hanged  after  a  fair  trial  in  court.  Since  then  anarchists  have 
been  severely  dealt  with  in  this  country.2 

385.  The  Australian  ballot.  Before  the  year  1888  most  of 
the  ballots  used  in  American  elections  were  furnished  by 
the  candidates  for  office.   These  ballots  were  printed  in  dif- 

1  This  dangerous  class  of  men  believe  that  there  should  be  no  government. 
In  order  to  help  bring  about  such  a  condition  of  affairs  they  are  willing  to  destroy 
the  property  of  the  rich  and  even  to  take  the  lives  of  men  who  hold  high  official 
positions,  such  as  kings  and  presidents.   They  are  especially  violent  against  the 
soldiery  and  the  police,  whose  business  it  is  to  compel  people  to  obey  the  laws. 

2  In  1884  the  Federal  Government  organized  a  Bureau  of  Labor,  to  gather 
and  publish  useful  facts  about  wages  and  the  conditions  under  which  men  and 
women  labor  in  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries.    Four  years  later, 
in  President  Cleveland's  first  term,  this  bureau  was  enlarged  into  a  Department 
of  Labor.    In  1903  there  was  established  the  Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor,  the  head  of  which  is  a  member  of  the  President's  Cabinet. 


422      THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 

ferent  styles  of  type,  and  the  paper  was  of  many  sizes  and 
colors.  The  object  of  this  variety  was  to  enable  candidates 
or  their,  agents,  who  always  stood  close  to  the  ballot  box,  to 
see  just  what  ticket  each  citizen  was  voting.  Employers 
who  had  ordered  their  workmen  to  vote  for  certain  can 
didates  could  in  this  way  find  out  whether  they  were  being 
obeyed ;  dishonest  office-seekers,  who  paid  men  for  voting 
for  them,  could  also  make  sure  that  the  purchased  vote 
was  cast. 

This  public  method  of  voting  deprived  large  numbers  of 
the  common  people  of  their  liberty  on  election  day.   Tens 

of  thousands  of 
them  felt  obliged 
to  vote  as  they 
were  told,  from 
fear  of  powerful 
politicians  or  of 
their  own  em 
ployers.  And  the 
system  also  made 
easy  the  abomi 
nable  practice  of 
vote-buying. 

Between  1888 
and  1 894  most  of 
the  States  introduced  a  very  necessary  reform  in  this  mat 
ter.  They  ordered  that  all  ballots  should  in  the  future  be 
officially  printed,  should  be  of  the  same  size  and  color,  and 
should  contain  the  names  of  all  the  candidates,  no  matter 
to  what  party  each  one  belonged.  These  papers  were  to  be 
marked  by  the  voter  in  secret,  in  a  booth  arranged  for  that 
purpose,  and  nobody  but  himself  need  ever  know  what  can 
didate  he  had  chosen.  The  "Australian  Ballot,"  so  called 
because  originated  in  Australia,  is  now  used  from  one  end 
of  this  country  to  the  other.  It  has  helped  to  make  our 
elections  more  honest. 
386.  Three  famous  laws.  The  first  Administration  of 


SKETCH   OF  A  VOTING  PLACE 


To  prevent  fraud,  clerks  identify  each  voter  upon  his  entrance.  The 
voter  then  marks  his  ballot  in  private,  at  a  booth,  folds  it,  and  de 
posits  it  in  the  ballot-box 


THREE  FAMOUS  LAWS  423 

President  Cleveland  was  notable  for  three  important  laws 
passed  by  Congress  and  signed  by  him :  — - 

(a)  The  Presidential  Succession    Act  (1886).    The  Con 
stitution  provides  that  when  a  President  dies  or  is  removed 
from  office  or  otherwise  disabled,  the  Vice- President  shall 
succeed  him.    This  has  occurred  several  times  in  the  na 
tion's  history.    But  it  might  well  happen  that  the  same 
cause  that  took  away  the  President  would  disable  also  the 
Vice- President.   Then,  until  another  election  could  be  held, 
there  would  be  no  President.   Some  arrangement  had  to  be 
made,  therefore,  by  which  the  office  would  surely  be  filled 
by  some  one.    Accordingly,  it  was  provided  in  the  Succes 
sion  Act  that  if  for  any  reason  the  Vice- President  was 
unable  to  serve  as  President,  the  office  should  be  held  by 
one  of  the  first  seven  members  of  the  Cabinet,  selected  in 
the  order  in  which  their  departments  were  created  by  law.1 

(b)  The  Electoral  Count  Act  (1887).   The  serious  trouble 
that  had  arisen  over  the  count  of  electoral  votes  in  1876 
caused  Congress  to  try  to  prevent  such  a  condition  occur 
ring  again.    This  new  law  ordered  that  hereafter  each  State 
may  regulate  for  itself  the  manner  in  which  its  electoral 
contests  shall  be  decided.    There  can  now  be  no  fear  of  the 
Federal  Government  controlling  the  presidential  election. 

(c)  The  Interstate  Commerce  Act  (1887).    This  law  pro 
vided  for  a  commission  to  regulate  the  manner  of  conducting 
all  railway  traffic,  both  passenger  and  freight,  that  passed 
through  more  than  one  State.   Since  the  Civil  War  there 
have  grown  up  in  this  country,  mostly  in  the  North,  a  large 
number  of  rich  and  powerful  business  and  manufacturing 
11  trusts  "  or  corporations.  They  make  very  large  shipments 
over  the  railroads,  and  previous  to  1887  were  able  to  bar 
gain  for  much  lower  freight  rates  than  were  charged  to  the 

1  There  are  now  ten  members,  whose  offices  were  created  in  this  order:  Sec 
retary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General, 
Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Secre 
tary  of  Agriculture,  Secretary  of  Commerce,  and  Secretary  of  Labor.  But  of 
course  no  cabinet  officer  can  succeed  to  the  presidency,  unless,  under  the  Con 
stitution,  he  is  otherwise  eligible  for  the  position. 


424      THE  PERIOD  OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 


small  concerns.  Having  such 
low  rates  to  pay,  these  large 
shippers  were  able  to  sell  their 
goods  for  much  less  than  could 
the  small  firms,  and  thus  they 
got  most  of  the  trade.  The 
latter  found  it  hard  to  com 
pete  with  them,  and  hundreds 
were  driven  out  of  business. 
The  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  was  given  author 
ity  to  put  a  stop  to  this  perni 
cious  favoritism,  and  to  oblige 
the  railroads  to  charge  the 
same  rates  to  all  shippers,  large 
or  small.  But  in  our  day 
the  Commission  has  still  larger 
power.  The  Railway  Rate  Act 
of  1906  gave  it  authority  to  say 
exactly  what  charges  should 
be  made  for  carrying  passen 
gers  and  freight  from  one  State 
into  another  State.  The  Com 
mission  may  also  dictate  what  conveniences  and  comforts 
of  various  kinds  the  railways  shall  provide  for  the  public. 
The  Federal  Government  has  also  forbidden  railways  to 
give  free  transportation  to  any  one  except  their  own  em 
ployees  and  certain  other  designated  persons,  from  one  State 
into  another  State.  And  in  many  of  the  States  there  are 
also  stringent  "  anti-pass"  laws  forbidding  free  railway 
tickets  within  those  States. 

1  Bartholdi's  Statue  of  Liberty .  In  1886  there  was  unveiled  on  Bedloe's  Island, 
in  the  Bay  of  New  York,  the  largest  bronze  statue  ever  made.  It  was  designed 
by  a  French  sculptor  named  Bartholdi  and  represents  "  Liberty  enlightening 
the  World."  The  Goddess  of  Liberty  is  holding  aloft  a  flaming  torch,  over 
three  hundred  feet  above  low  tide,  to  light  the  path  of  Europeans  into  the 
gateway  of  this  "Land  of  Freedom  and  Opportunity."  It  was  a  present  to 
Americans  from  the  people  of  France,  in  memory  of  the  days  when  that 
nation  helped  us  to  gain  our  independence  from  Great  Britain. 


LIBERTY  ENLIGHTENING   THE 
WORLD  1 


THE  PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION       425 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Begin  to  make  a  list  of  the  new  problems  confronting  the  nation. 

2.  Tell  why  the  Australian  ballot  system  is  an  improvement  on  the  former 
system  of  voting. 

3.  Relate  some  of  the  important  powers  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission. 

4.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  brief  account  of  a  few  of  the  memorable  events  in  Grant's  life. 

2.  Write  an  account  of  how  a  strike  was  averted  by  mutual  concessions. 

3.  Write  a  newspaper  editorial  condemning  the  Haymarket  assassinations, 


CHAPTER   XLIII 

THE  RUSH  TO  OKLAHOMA,  AND  THE  ADMISSION  OF 
WESTERN  STATES:  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 

1889-1893 

387.  The  election  of  President  Harrison.  The  Democrats, 
who  had  elected  President  Cleveland,  wanted  to  reduce  the 
tariff  on  imported  goods.    But  the  Republicans  wished  for 
still  higher  duties,  in  order,  they  said,  to  give  to  American 
industries  better  protection  than  before  against  European 
competition.  At  the  presidential  election  in  1888  a  majority 
of  the  people  voted  in  favor  of  the  protection  policy  and 
did  not  reelect  Cleveland.    He  was  succeeded  by  the  Re 
publican  candidate  for  President,  Benjamin  Harrison,  whose 
inauguration  took  place  in  March,  iS8g.1 

388.  The  McKinley  Tariff  Bill.  In  the  autumn  of  1890 
Congress  carried  out  the  Republican  pledges  by  adopting 
what  is  known  as  the  McKinley  Tariff  Bill.  It  increased  the 
duties  on  many  imported  articles.  The  act  contained,  how 
ever,  a  so-called  "  reciprocity  "  clause.   This  provided  that 
if  foreign  countries  would  place  only  small  duties  on  certain 
American  manufactures  that  we  shipped  to  their  ports,  we 
would  reciprocate  by  lowering  the  duties  on  those  of  their 
products  that  we  imported. 

389.  The  opening  of  Oklahoma.  By  the  time  of  Harri 
son's  Administration  it  was  difficult  to  find  good  farming 
land  in  the  West  that  might  be  obtained  from  the  Federal 
Government  under  the  Homestead  Act.    There  had  arisen 

1  Harrison  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1833.  His  great-grandfather  was  Benjamin 
Harrison.asignerof  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  His  grandfather,  William 
Henry  Harrison,  was  governor  of  Indiana,  a  general  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  for 
a  few  months  (1841)  President  of  the  United  States.  President  Benjamin 
Harrison  was  a  lawyer  in  Indianapolis  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out;  but  he 
joined  the  Union  army  and  became  a  brigadier-general.  After  the  war  he 
served  as  a  United  States  Senator  from  Indiana.  He  died  in  1901. 


THE  OPENING  OF  OKLAHOMA  427 

a  widespread  demand  that  parts  of.  the  large  Western  Indian 
reservations  be  thrown  open  for  sale  to  white  settlers.  Ac 
cordingly,  the  United  States  bought  from  the  aborigines  in 
Indian  Territory  a  large  and  fertile  tract  of  about  40,000 
square  miles.  It  was  called  Oklahoma,  and  heretofore  it 
had  only  been  used  as  a  pasture  for  the  cattle  and  horses  of 
the  tribes  of  that  region. 

The  President  published  a  proclamation  that  lands  in 
Oklahoma  would  be  ready  for  sale  after  twelve  o'clock  noon 
of  April  22,  1889.  In  order  that  everybody  might  have  an 
equal  chance,  he  declared  that  no  outsiders  should  be  ad 
mitted  to  the  territory  before  that  hour.  Intense  interest 
was  aroused  among  the  people  of  the  entire  country.  Days 


OKLAHOMA  CITY  IN  1889 

In  1890,  the  population  was  10,037;  in  1910, 64,205.  The  gain  from  1900  to  1910  was  over  639  per 
cent,  the  highest  rate  of  any  city  in  the  country 

before  the  opening,  100,000  "  boomers,"  as  they  were  called, 
were  camping  along  the  border ;  but  a  strong  guard  of  United 
States  soldiers  kept  them  from  crossing  it.  The  boomers  had 
come  from  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union,  on  horseback, 
afoot,  by  railroad,  or  in  prairie  schooners.  Each  was  anxious 
to  have  the  first  choice  in  selecting  a  suitable  location  fog 
either  a  farm  or  a  place  of  business. 

Just  as  the  hands  of  the  commander's  watch  touched  nail 
midday  hour,  military  buglers  sounded  the  signal.  E,  now 
their  clear  high  notes  had  ceased,  tens  of  thousands  f>ods  to 
and  boys,  and  even  women  and  girls,  were  madly  f  his  will 
forward  into  Oklahoma  in  wagons  and  buggies, 
back,  or  afoot.  It  was  a  wild,  scrambling  race,  e  . 

f       .        *  f    _.  .  i  i  .        ,       m        .  suffrage  States. 

for  itself,  to  secure  those  places  in  the  Territory  on  all  matters 
had  picked  out  beforehand  on  the  maps  tha 


430      THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  reciprocity? 

2.  How  is  the  Federal  Government  increasing  the  amount  of  productive 
1-and  in  the  West?  Let  some  member  of  the  class  ascertain  how  much 
land  has  been  made  productive  in  this  way,  and  compare  the  area  of  this 
land  with  the  area  of  his  State. 

3.  Locate  Oklahoma  on  the  map,  and  tell  how  the  Territory  was  created. 
Compare  this  with  the  origin  of  other  States.  (See  Appendix  C.) 

4.  Name  the  various  causes  that  have  extended  our  territory  westward. 
(See  "Westward  Migration"  in  the  Index.) 

5.  Debate  the  question  of  woman  suffrage. 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Compare  the  settling  of  Oklahoma  in  1889  with  that  of  California 
forty  years  before. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  accompanied  your  father  across  the  line  into  Okla 
homa.  Write  a  letter  home  in  which  you  describe  your  first  day's  ex 
periences. 

3.  Write  a  paragraph  descriptive  of  one  of  the  six  States  admitted  in 
1889-90.    Do  not  name  the  State,  but  see  that  you  make  your  para 
graph  so  distinct  that  the  class  will  have  little  difficulty  in  identifying 
the  State  described. 


CHAPTER   XLIV 

INDUSTRIAL   AND   INTERNATIONAL   ARBITRATION 
1893-1897 

392.  The  second  election  of  Cleveland;  the  Wilson  Tar 
iff  Bill.    During  the  last  years  of  the  Harrison  Administra 
tion  the  maj.ority  of  the  voters  appeared  to  have  changed 
their  minds  about  the  tariff.  For  a  second  time  they  elected 
Cleveland  as  President,  because  the  Democrats  promised 
that  if  they  won  they  would  lower  the  duties  on  imports. 

In  1894  this  promise  was  carried  out  by  the  new  Congress, 
which  passed  what  was  called  the  Wilson  Tariff.  Under  that 
law  the  duties  were  only  about  three  fourths  as  much  as 
those  levied  by  the  McKinley  Tariff,  and  lumber  and  wool 
were  allowed  to  come  in  free. 

393.  The  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago.  Two  months 
after  President   Cleveland's   inauguration   (1893),  he  was 
called  upon  to  open  at  Jackson  Park,  on  the  lake  front  in 
Chicago,  a  great  fair  known  as  the  World's  Columbian  Expo 
sition.  This  was  to  celebrate  the  four  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.1    It  was  in  every 
way  an  impressive  record  of  the  wonderful  advancement 
that  civilized  men  had  everywhere  made  since  the  discovery 
of  America.    But  it  was  plainly  to  be  seen  from  the  exhibits 
that   the  United   States  led  the  world  in  many   kinds   of 
machinery,  in  electrical  devices,  and  in  nearly  all  matters 
relating  to  popular  education. 

394.  The  panic  of  1893.  The  fair  at  Chicago  showed  how 

1  As  the  great  explorer's  first  visit  to  this  hemisphere  was  in  1492,  the  date 
of  the  anniversary  was  really  1892.  But  it  took  so  long  to  prepare  for  the  ex 
position  that  it  could  not  be  held  until  the  next  year. 


432 


THE   PERIOD   OF  NATIONAL  EXPANSION 


fast  and  well  this  nation  had  grown,  particularly  since  the 
Civil  War;  how  industries  and  education  had  made  pro 
gress  among  us;  and  how  rich  the  United  States  seemed  to 
have  become.  During  that  summer,  however,  another 
financial  panic  suddenly  came  upon  the  country,  and  the 
gratification  of  our  people  was  at  once  changed  to  gloom. 

The  Americans  had  for  several  years  been  enjoying  "good 
times. "  As  usual  this  condition  led  them  to  be  careless 
about  their  business  ventures.  They  were  now  speculating 


Copyright,  KauJ'mann,  Weimerand  Fabry  Co. 

A  PART  OF   THE  WATER   FRONT  AT  CHICAGO,  1911 

This  photograph  was  taken  from  an  aeroplane,  600  feet  above  Lake  Michigan.  The  perspective  is  slightly 
distorted  by  the  camera;  notice  how  the  street  in  the  foreground,  Michigan  Boulevard,  is  made  to 
appear  as  it  built  on  a  curve,  whereas  it  really  is  straight 

too  much  with  borrowed  money;  thousands  were  spending 
more  than  they  could  afford  to  spend ;  and  capitalists  were 
building  more  railways  and  factories  than  the  country  as  yet 
needed.  This  carelessness  could  not  long  continue  without 
disaster. 

There  came  a  time  when  owners  of  factories,  mills,  mines, 
banks,  and  stores  suddenly  discovered  that  they  could  not 
collect  all  of  the  money  that  their  customers  owed  them. 
They  therefore  could  not  pay  their  own  debts.  As  a  result, 
there  followed  great  numbers  of  business  failures  from  one 
end  of  the  country  to  the  other.  In  the  crash  thousands  of 
men  lost  every  dollar  they  owned.  But  worst  of  all,  many 


RAILWAY  AND   COAL  STRIKES  433 

factories  and  mines  had  to  stop,  and  railway  lines  reduced 
the  number  of  their  workmen ;  consequently,  large  numbers 
of  people  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  Very  soon  the 
country  seemed  to  be  filled  with  men  who  had  nothing  to 
do.  Many  of  them  could  no  longer  buy  enough  food  and 
clothing  for  their  families,  and  there  was  much  intense  suf 
fering  in  every  part  of  the  land. 

395.  Railway  and  coal  strikes.  This  unfortunate  situation 
was  during  the  next  year  (1894)  made  still  worse  by  great 
strikes,  chiefly  by  coal-miners  and  railway  men.  They  de 
manded  more  wages  and  fewer  working  hours  than  the  em 
ployers  were  willing  to  grant.  The  worst  trouble  was  at 
Pullman,  a  few  miles  from  Chicago,  in  the  shops  where 
sleeping-cars  are  made.  The  strike  of  the  three  thousand 
workmen  employed  there  was  followed  by  a  "  sympathetic 
strike  "  on  eleven  railways  centering  in  Chicago.  The  pur 
pose  of  this  was  to  prevent  these  lines  from  using  Pullman 
cars.  Almost  every  railway  in  the  West  and  the  South  was 
"  tied  up."  Great  quantities  of  meat,  butter,  fruits,  and 
other  perishable  goods  were  spoiled  because  they  could  not 
be  shipped.  For  three  weeks  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
travel  either  out  of  or  to  Chicago,  and  a  large  amount  of  rail 
way  property  was  destroyed  by  rioters.  Trade  in  several 
large  Western  cities  was  at  a  standstill,  factories  were  closed 
because  they  could  not  get  material,  and  virtually  everybody 
suffered  some  sort  of  inconvenience.  But  the  blow  fell  heavi 
est  on  the  thousands  of  unemployed  people  who  now  had  no 
money  to  buy  food,  clothing,  or  shelter.  The  effect  on  the 
country  was  almost  as  disastrous  as  the  panic  of  the  year 
before.  Finally,  President  Cleveland  sent  Federal  soldiers 
to  Illinois  to  protect  the  mail  cars  and  to  stop  the  inter 
ference  with  interstate  commerce.  This  ended  the  trouble. 
During  those  three  eventful  weeks,  however,  the  manu 
facturers,  the  railroads,  and  the  workmen  had  lost  over 
$7,000,000  in  property  destroyed  and  wages  unpaid.1 

1  In  the  spring  of  1894  several  hundred  unemployed  men  gathered  in  Ohio 
from  as  far  west  as  San  Francisco.  They  called  themselves  "Coxey's  Army," 


434      THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

396.  International  arbitration.  In  the  midst  of  the 
World's  Fair  and  the  panic  of  1893  came  the  peaceful  settle 
ment  of  a  long-standing  dispute  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  When  we  bought  Alaska  we  supposed 
that  our  ownership  extended  over  all  of  Bering  Sea,  whose 
islands  are  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  frequented  by 
valuable  fur-bearing  seals.  But  when  these  animals  left 
the  islands  and  swam  out  into  the  open  sea,  they  were  killed 
in  such  great  numbers  by  foreign  seal-hunters  that  it  began 
to  look  as  though  they  would  soon  be  exterminated.  There 
fore,  United  States  cruisers  captured  the  vessels  and  fur 
cargoes  of  as  many  such  intruders  as  possible.  The  foreign 
ers  protested,  however,  that  we  had  no  right  to  do  this;  they 
said  that  our  authority  did  not  extend  beyond  a  limit  of 
three  miles  out  from  shore.  Great  Britain,  indeed,  demanded 
that  we  return  all  furs  and  vessels  that  our  officers  had  taken 
from  the  Canadian  hunters. 

The  two  countries  very  sensibly  agreed  to  refer  the  mat 
ter  to  a  commission  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Norway- 
Sweden.  It  was  decided  by  this  body  that  while  the  United 
States  had  no  right  to  close  all  of  Bering  Sea  to  the  seal- 
hunters  of  other  nations,  it  could  insist  on  having  the  ani 
mals  hunted  only  in  the  proper  season  and  by  rules  that 
would  prevent  their  extermination.  It  was  far  better  to 
have  this  matter  settled  in  a  friendly  way  than  to  go 
to  war  over  it.  The  verdict  pleased  Great  Britain,  for  now 
we  could  no  longer  molest  foreign  sailors;  and  Americans 
were  also  satisfied,  for  they  had  only  desired  to  protect  the 
seals  from  thoughtless  hunters. 

But  it  was  found  that  even  this  arrangement  was  not  suf 
ficient.  There  were  still  so  many  seals  secretly  caught  in 

because  led  by  a  man  named  Jacob  S.  Coxey,  and  marched  over  the  mountains 
to  Washington,  where  about  five  hundred  of  them  arrived  on  May  Day. 
The  banners  that  they  carried  denounced  all  capitalists,  and  declared 
that  they  were  going  to  petition  Congress  to  provide  work  for  everybody  at 
good  wages.  But  Congress  paid  no  attention  to  the  "army  "  and  it  soon  dis 
banded. 


INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  435 

the  open  sea  by  British,  Russian,  Japanese,  and  American 
hunters  that  each  year  the  herds  grew  smaller  and  smaller. 
Finally,  in  July,  1911,  during  President  Taft's  Administra 
tion,  a  treaty  was  signed  between  all  four  nations  by  which 
no  fur  seals  are  to  be  killed  in  the  open  waters  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  including  the  seas  of  Bering,  Okhotsk,  Kam 
chatka,  and  Japan. 

During  Cleveland's  second  Administration  another  seri 
ous  dispute  arose  between  this  country  and  Great  Britain, 
but  it  also  ended  peacefully.  Venezuela  and  Great  Britain 
had  for  a  half-century  been  quarreling  over  the  boundary 
between  the  former  country  and  the  latter's  colony  of  British 
Guiana.  Great  Britain  seemed  inclined  to  take  advantage 
of  her  strength  and  to  establish  the  boundary  where  it 
pleased  her.  But  Cleveland  declared  that  under  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  we  could  not  possibly  allow  a  European 
nation  to  domineer  over  an  American  republic.  He  insisted 
that  the  British  Government  should  arbitrate  with  Vene 
zuela  and  put  a  stop  to  the  unfortunate  quarrel.  At  first 
Great  Britain  flatly  refused  to  do  this ;  whereupon  the  Presi 
dent  himself  appointed  a  commission  to  determine  the  true 
boundary.  For  a  time  there  was  much  fear  both  in  England 
and  America  that  a  war  might  result  from  this  action.  But 
Great  Britain  finally  agreed  (1897)  to  the  proposed  arbitra 
tion  with  Venezuela,  and  the  affair  ended  without  any 
further  trouble. 

QUESTIONS  AND  .SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Review  former  panics,  and  note  in  what  respects  the  causes  of  all  were 
similar.    (See  "  Panics  "  in  the  Index.) 

2.  What  event  in  Cleveland's  second  Administration  showed  the  au 
thority  of  the  National  Government?    Make  a  list  of  the  events  in 
Colonial  and  Revolutionary  history  which  gradually  brought  about  the 
establishment  of  the   Union;   then  make  a  list  of  events  beginning 
with  Washington's  Administration,  which  established  the  supremacy 
of  the  Union  of  the  States. 

3.  Recall  another  instance  of  arbitration  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.    (See  "  Arbitration  "  in  the  Index.)  Why  should  peace 
exist  between  the  two  nations? 


436      THE   PERIOD   OF   NATIONAL   EXPANSION 

4.  Some  of  the  great  questions  before  the  people  in  Cleveland's  second 
Administration  are  still  public  questions.   Name  them. 

5.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1 .  One  of  Columbus's  descendants  visits  the  fair  at  Chicago.   Write  a 
letter  which  he  might  have  written  to  a  relative  in  Spain  about  his 
visit. 

2.  Write  a  brief  argument  .justifying  President  Cleveland  in  sending 
the  troops  to  Chicago  during  the  strike. 


THE   UNITED    STATES   A   WORLD    POWER 
CHAPTER   XLV 

THE    SPANISH-AMERICAN    WAR,    AND    TERRITORIAL 

EXPANSION:  THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 
1897-1901 

397.  The   Dingley   Tariff.  The   majority   of   American 
voters  were  not  quite  satisfied  with  the  Wilson  Tariff,  that 
had  been  adopted  by  the  Democrats.     The  Republicans 
again  offered  to  give  to  our  manufacturers  increased  pro 
tection,  and  succeeded  in  electing 

their  presidential  candidate,  Wil 
liam  McKinley,1  to  succeed  Presi 
dent  Cleveland. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  McKinley 
Administration  (1897),  Congress, 
which  was  also  controlled  by  the 
Republicans,  adopted  the  Dingley 
Tariff  Bill.  This  increased  the  du 
ties  on  many  imports,  and  took  from 
the  free  list  wool  and  several  other 

articles  that  had  been  placed  there         WILLIAM  MCKINLEY 
by  the  Wilson  Tariff. 

398.  National  prosperity,  and  Greater  New  York.  The 
ill  effects  of  the  panic  of  1893  and  of  the  labor  disturbances 
that  followed  it,  had  by  this  time  almost  wholly  disappeared. 
During    McKinley's  term  of  office  the  prosperity  of    the 
United  States  was  much  talked  about  throughout  the  entire 
world.    American-made  hardware,  tools,  sewing-machines, 

1  McKinley  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1843',  and  as  a  youth  taught  a  country  school. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  enlisted  in  the  Union  army  as  a  private,  in 
the  regiment  in  which  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  (afterwards  President)  was  a  major. 
McKinley,  beihg  a  good  and  brave  soldier,  gradually  rose  to  be  a  major  himself. 
When  the  war  was  over  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  in  1876  was  elected  a  member 
of  Congress.  In  1890  he  introduced  the  McKinley  Tariff  Bill. 


438      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 


typewriters,  watches,  bicycles,  copper  wire,  steel  rails, 
bridges,  locomotives,  electric  cars,  and  leather  goods  were 
to  be  seen  in  every  continent ;  and  so  also  were  our  great 
natural  products  —  beef,  flour,  wheat,  corn,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  petroleum. 

As  a  result  of  the  increase  of  trade  and  of  manufacturing, 
our  cities  were  growing  rapidly  in  every  section  —  North, 
South,  East,  and  West.1  The  nation's  metropolis,  New  York, 
had  expanded  so  greatly  since  the  war  that  not  only  was 


Copyright,  George  P.  Rail  and  Son 

THE   SKYSCRAPERS   OF   NEW  YORK 

This  view  Shcrvs  on,y  a  small  section  of  the  city.  It  Is  taken  from  a  point  nearly  opposite  the  Battery, 
which  is  at  the  extreme  southern  end  of  the  lone,  narrow  island  on  which  the  city  is  built.  The  tower 
near  the  center  is  on  the  Singer  Building.  This  is  forty-nine  stories  (612  feet)  in  height 

Manhattan  Island  crowded,  but  on  the  mainland  to  the 
west  and  on  Long  Island  to  the  east  there  was  a  continu 
ous  and  solid  settlement  stretching  out  for  many  miles.  As 
this  is  chiefly  a  settlement  of  people  working  or  doing  busi 
ness  on  Manhattan,  it  was  now  decided  to  unite  into  one 
municipality  such  of  the  adjoining  towns  as  lay  within  the 
State  of  New  York.  Accordingly,  on  New  Year's  Day,  1898, 
Brooklyn  and  several  other  suburbs  were  annexed  to  the 
central  city,  which  thereafter  was  known  as  "  Greater  New 

1  Early  in  September,  1900,  a  great  hurricane  swept  along  the  Gulf  Coast 
in  southern  Texas.  It  was  particularly  disastrous  to  the  city  and  neighborhood 
of  Galveston,  where  6000  lives  were  lost  and  property  worth  $18,000,000  was 
destroyed.  Galveston  is  now  wholly  rebuilt,  however,  and  is  even  stronger  and 
more  attractive  than  before. 


WAR  WITH  SPAIN  439 

York."  The  Federal  census  taken  in  1910  found  4,766,883 
human  beings  within  this  thickly  peopled  area.  It  is  now 
the  largest  city  on  the  earth,  except  London. 

399.  The  causes  of  our  war  with  Spain.  For  a  long  time 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  Spain  was  one  of  its  most  power 
ful  nations  and  possessed  important  colonies  in  every  conti 
nent.  But  her  harsh  and  corrupt  Government  ruled  these 
colonies  with  very  little  sympathy  for  the  colonists  them 
selves.  The  aim  of  Spain  was  to  collect  their  gold,  silver,  and 
other  products  so  as  to  make  the  motherland  rich ;  she  did  not 
help  her  children  across  the  seas  to  prosper  for  their  own 
sake.  The  colonists  were  rightfully  discontented  with  this 
mercenary  treatment  and  with  the  overbearing  manner  and 
often  despotic  methods  of  the  Spanish  officials  sent  to  govern 
them.  Hence,  when  Spain,  from  various  political  causes 
in  Europe,  grew  weak,  many  of  her  colonies  rebelled  and 
established  their  independence.  All  of  those  in  Central  and 
South  America  did  this  in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  North  America  Spain  had  gradually  either  given 
aw  ay  or  sold  her  mainland  possessions.1  But  until  the  year 
1898  she  still  owned  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West 
Indies;  and  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  the  great  archipelago 
known  as  the  Philippines.2 

For  many  years  the  Cubans  had  felt  very  bitter  toward 
Spain.  They  objected  to  remaining  the  property  of  a  nation 
whose  only  interest  in  the  island  was  to  see  how  much 
profit  could  be  got  out  of  it.  They  were  tired  of  paying 
large  taxes  to  keep  up  the  expensive  and  tyrannical  military 
government  with  which  Spain  controlled  the  island.  Con 
sequently,  insurrections  were  frequent,  life  and  property 
were  insecure,  and  business  was  continually  in  a  turmoil. 
Cuba  is  so  close  to  our  shores,  and  so  many  Americans  live 

1  She  had  returned  the  Province  of  Louisiana  to  France,  which  sold  it  to  us 
in  1803.  (See  page  232.)    Mexico  revolted  in  1821,  and  later,  as  a  result  of  the 
Mexican  War  (see  page  301),  sold  a  large  area  of  her  land  to  the  United  States. 
In  1819  Spain  abandoned  her  claims  to  Oregon  and  sold  us  Florida.  (See  page 
257.  Refer  also  to  Appendices  C  and  E  and  the  map  between  pages  392  and  393.) 

2  Discovered  by  Magellan,  and  in  later  years  named  in  honor  of  Philip  II  of 
Spain. 


440      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

and  do  business  there,  that  the  United  States  has  always 
felt  a  strong  interest  in  its  affairs.  During  several  of  our 
presidential  administrations  we  tried  to  buy  the  island  from 
Spain,  or  at  least  to  persuade  her  to  arbitrate  her  disputes 
with  the  Cubans.  But  she  stubbornly  refused  to  listen  to 
us. 

The  most  serious  Cuban  uprising  began  in  1895.  Spain 
tried  to  quell  it  by  sending  over  more  than  200,000  troops, 
with  orders  to  use  severe  methods.  One  of  these  was  to  shut 
the  inhabitants  up  in  their  towns  and  villages  and  try  to 
prevent  the  raising  of  any  crops.  She  hoped  in  this  way  to 
starve  them  into  submission.1  But  the  people  declared  that 
they  would  much  rather  die  by  starvation  than  any  longer 
submit  to  Spanish  tyranny;  and  they  appealed  to  the 
United  States  for  help. 

Like  most  Americans,  President  Cleveland  keenly  sym 
pathized  with  the  liberty-loving  Cubans.  He  said  that  if 
the  war  were  allowed  to  go  on,  it  would  mean  "  the  utter 
ruin"  of  the  island.  Both  he  and  his  successor,  President 
McKinley,  remonstrated  with  the  Spanish  Government, 
but  they  could  not  get  any  satisfactory  replies. 

In  the  midst  of  this  discussion  between  the  two  Govern 
ments,  one  of  our  battleships,  the  Maine,  visited  Havana. 
On  February  15,  1898,  while  lying  peacefully  in  the  harbor  of 
that  city,  she  was  shattered  by  a  terrible  explosion  and  at 
once  sank  with  two  hundred  and  sixty-six  of  her  officers  and 
crew.  The  cause  of  this  disaster  has  not  been  officially  de 
termined.  There  was  an  explosion  inside  of  the  ship.  But  this 
may  have  been  accidental,  or  it  may  have  resulted  from  the 
outside  explosion  of  a  submarine  mine  fired  by  an  enemy  of  the 
United  States.  Whatever  the  cause  may  have  been,  Ameri 
cans  at  that  time  generally  believed  that  our  seamen  had  been 
murdered  by  a  Spanish  plot.2  At  once  tremendous  excitement 

1  In  the  Province  of  Havana  alone  this  policy  caused  50,000  persons  to  die 
from  disease  and  destitution.   It  is  claimed  that  250,000  lives  were  thus  lost  on 
the  entire  island. 

2  In  the  winter  of  1911-12  the  sunken  vessel  was  raised  and  examined,  by 
order  of  Congress.   The  bodies  of  sailors  not  previously  recovered  were  taken 


CAPTURE  OF  THE   PHILIPPINES  441 

arose  throughout  the  land.  Vengeful  cries  of  "  Remember 
the  Maine!  "  were  everywhere  heard.  Thousands  of  citi 
zens  and  most  of  the  newspapers  demanded  that  the  Govern 
ment  fight  Spain  without  delay  and  make  Cuba  free. 

President  McKinley  yielded  to  this  popular  clamor.  He 
sent  a  message  to  Congress  declaring  that  "  In  the  name  of 
humanity,  in  thename  of  civilization,  in  behalf  of  endangered 
American  interests,  .  .  .  the  war  in  Cuba  must  stop."  On 
April  19  Congress  passed  a  resolution  declaring  that:  - 

(a)  "  The  people  of  Cuba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  " ;  and  that  Spain  must  withdraw  her 
troops  and  surrender  the  island  to  the  inhabitants. 

(b)  If  Spain  refused  to  do  this,  we  should  ourselves  help 
the  Cubans  to  obtain  liberty.    But  it  was  promised  that  in 
case  we  succeeded,  our  troops  would  remain  no  longer  on 
the  island  than  was  necessary  to  establish  peace  and  good 
order. 

400.  War  is  declared.  Spain  did  refuse,  and  on  April  25 
Congress  declared  wTar  against  her.    The  President  called 
for  over  200,000  volunteers   from  the  several  States  and 
Territories,  to  assist  the  regular  army,  and  in  a  short  time 
all  of  them  were  ready  for  service.    Congress  did  its  part 
by  levying  special  taxes  to  raise  money  to  carry  on  the  war, 
such  as  obliging  persons  to  affix  revenue  stamps  to  all  checks 
and  other  documents,  j  ust  as  was  done  during  the  Civil  War ; 
and  $200,000,000  was  easily  borrowed  from  the  people  at  the 
low  rate  of  three  per  cent  interest  a  year.1 

401.  We  capture  the  Philippines.  While  the  rebellion  in 
Cuba  was  in  progress  the  people  of  the  Philippines,  called 
Filipinos,  were  also  seeking  to  overthrow  Spanish  rule  and 
to  set  up  a  republic  of  their  own.    Spain  was  practicing 
toward  them  the  same  harsh  and  cruel  methods  with  which 
she  had  made  the  Cubans  familiar.    For  this  purpose  a  fleet 

to  the  United  States  for  burial.  The  ship  itself  was  sunk  in  deep  water  off  the 
coast  of  Cuba. 

1  The  willingness  of  the  citizens  to  lend  this  money  to  the  Government  was 
so  great  that  several  times  the  needed  amount  was  offered.  But  of  course  no 
more  could  be  taken  than  had  been  called  for  by  Congress. 


I 


MANILA  BAY 


442      THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

of  her  war- vessels,  laden  with  soldiers,  had  been  sent  to  the 
archipelago. 

At  the  time  of  the  opening  of  our  war  with  Spain  this 
squadron  lay  in  the  beautiful,  spacious,  and  well-fortified 

harbor  of  Manila.  Commodore 
Dewey,  who  had  fought  under 
Admiral  Farragut  in  the  Civil 
War,  was  just  then  looking  after 
American  interests  along  the 
Asiatic  Coast.  He  received  se 
cret  orders  by  cable  from  our 
Navy  Department  to  hurry  to 
Manila  with  his  nine  ships  and 
either  "  capture  or  destroy  "  the 
Spanish  fleet. 

The  battle  took  place  on  May 
I,  1898.  Amid  thunderous  volleys  from  the  forts  and  bat 
teries  in  the  harbor,  Dewey  in  a  short  time  destroyed  every 
Spanish  ship.  This  victory  was  won  with  the  wounding  of 
only  seven  Americans,  and  no  harm  to  our  vessels;  whereas 
the  Spanish  lost  not  only  their  entire  fleet,  but  three  hun 
dred  and  eighty-one  of  their  men  were  killed. 

Congress  promptly  rewarded  Dewey  by  making  him  a  rear- 
admiral,1  and  the  War  Department  ordered  20,000  soldiers 
to  assist  him  in  the  capture  of  Manila  itself.  On  August 
13  that  city,  with  13,000  Spanish  troops,  who  made  a 
desperate  resistance,  surrendered  to  the  American  army  and 
fleet.  The  power  that  holds  Manila  controls  the  entire 
archipelago.  This  victory,  therefore,  meant  the  end  of 
Spanish  rule  in  the  Orient. 

402.  Objects  of  our  campaign  in  Cuba.  Meanwhile  the 
Americans  were  making  headway  in  Cuba.  Our  campaign 
for  freeing  the  people  of  that  island  consisted  of  four  moVe- 
ments:  — 

(a)  To  the  army  was  given  the  task  of  conquering  the 
Spanish  troops  on  the  island.  Only  17,000  American  sol- 

1  The  next  year  he  was  made  an  admiral. 


THE  CAMPAIGN   IN   CUBA 


443 


diers  were  actually  sent  over  to  Cuba;  the  rest  were  kept  in 
readiness  for  service,  in  camps  near  the  seacoast  of  the 
Southern  States. 

(b)  The  duty  of  the  navy  was  to  blockade  the  coast  of 
the  island,  so  that  the  Spanish  soldiers  might  neither  escape 
nor  be  reinforced  from  Spain.     The  blockading  squadron 
was  commanded  by  Admiral  Sampson. 

(c)  It  was  also  necessary  that  the  shores  of  the  United 
States  should  be  protected.    Attacks  were   expected  from 
the  principal  Spanish  fleet,  which  in  the  beginning  of  the 
war  was  at  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  and  in  charge  of  Admiral 
Cervera.    The  duty  of  watching  Cervera's  movements  was 
given  to  a  "  flying  squadron  "  under  Admiral  Schley.   This 
consisted  of  swift  cruisers  that  might  at  any  time  hurry  to 
the  place  where  they  were  most  needed. 

(d)  Lastly,  the  army  and  navy  were  to  cooperate  in  the 
capture  of  Santiago,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Cuba.   This 
place  controlled  the  entire  eastern  end  of  the  island. 

These  various  movements  culminated  within  a  very  short 
time. 

403.  The  Spanish  are  driven  into  Santiago.  The  land 
locked  harbor  of  Santiago  is  shaped  much  like  a  jug.  It 
is  entered  from  the  sea 
through  a  narrow  mouth, 
which  was  protected  by  a 
strong  Spanish  fortress 
and  many  submarine 
mines.  On  the  land  side 
were  numerous  defensive 
batteries.  These  stood 
usually  on  the  tops  of  hills 
that  were  girt  about  by 
tangles  of  barbed  wire  and 
thick  jungles  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines,  through  which  the 
Americans  found  it  difficult  to  advance. 

But  notwithstanding  these  obstructions  and  the  over 
powering  heat,  our  regiments  made  several  brilliant  as- 


lip 


Dalqi 


THE   SANTIAGO   CAMPAIGN 


444      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

saults  on  the  fortified  hills,  and  on  July  I  drove  the  Spanish 
back  into  Santiago  with  heavy  loss.  The  charge  on  San  Juan 
Hill  became  famous,  because  of  an  especially  fine  record 
made  there  by  a  regiment  of  volunteer  cavalrymen,  called 
"  Rough  Riders."  These  men  valiantly  aided  the  regulars, 
and  were  led  by  Lieutenant- Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
afterwards  President  of  the  United  States.1 

404.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  is  destroyed;  the  war  ends. 
Cervera's  fleet  consisted  of  six  ships,  which  were  much 
more  powerful  than  those  destroyed  by  Dewey.  Just  before 
the  battle  of  Manila  the  Spanish  admiral  left  the  Cape 
Verd  Islands  and  steamed  out  to  sea.  Where  was  he  go 
ing?  Americans  could  not  possibly  tell.  In  those  days  there 
was  no  wireless  telegraphy  to  carry  news  as  to  the  where 
abouts  of  vessels  in  mid-ocean. 

Dwellers  along  our  far-stretching  seacoast  feared  that  any 
hour  he  might  enter  the  harbors  of  New  York,  Boston,  or 
even  San  Francisco,  and  bombard  those  cities  with  power 
ful  long-range  guns.  Our  coast  defenses  were  then  few  and 
weak,  and  such  an  enemy  might  easily  do  enormous  damage 
to  property  and  even  life.  Hundreds  of  frightened  citizens 
left  their  homes  and  sought  safety  in  the  interior  of  the 
country. 

Or  did  Cervera  intend  to  meet  and  destroy  our  fine  battle 
ship,  the  Oregon,  that  was  coming  around  Cape  Horn  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  join  Sampson's  blockading  squadron 
off  the  coast  of  Cuba? 

Cervera  did  none  of  these  expected  things.  He  crept 
across  the  Atlantic,  evaded  our  flying  squadron  and  block- 
aders,  and  took  refuge  in  Santiago  Harbor.  The  Americans 

1  The  Rough  Riders  (1000  men)  were  organized  by  Theodore  Roosevelt,  but 
theircolonel  was  Leonard  Wood,  who  in  later  years  became  the  head  of  the  regu 
lar  army.  The  members  of  this  command  were  young  men  who,  like  Roosevelt 
himself,  had  had  much  experience  in  horseback  riding  on  the  Western  Plains 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Some  were  cowboys  and  ranchmen,  others  were 
sons  of  wealthy  Eastern  parents,  and  many  were  graduates  from  colleges  and 
universities.  The  Rough  Riders  were  more  talked  about  than  any  other  body 
of  men  in  the  American  army  of  1898.  Only  560  of  them  crossed  over  to  Cuba, 
however,  and  less  than  500  were  in  the  battle  of  San  Juan  Hill. 


THE   COST  OF  THE  WAR  445 

then  teamed  that  he  had  good  reason  for  this  caution. 
His  ships  were  short  of  coal  and  provisions  and  were  not 
as  well  equipped  with  guns  and  ammunition  as  we  had 
supposed. 

Nevertheless,  Cervera  must  not  be  allowed  to  emerge 
from  his  hiding  place,  for  he  still  might  do  great  damage  to 
our  coast  towns.  Sampson  and  Schley  therefore  united  in  a 
blockade  of  the  harbor.  They  also  sought  to  "  put  a  cork  in 
the  jug,"  by  sinking  an  American  vessel  across  the  mouth.1 
But  this  obstruction  was  not  placed  in  the  right  spot,  so 
that  room  was  still  left  for  Cervera  to  pass  out  to  sea  if  he 
felt  strong  enough  to  do  so. 

This  he  did  on  July  3,  two  days  after  the  fall  of  Santi 
ago's  outlying  land  defenses.  Rather  than  be  caught  in  a 
trap,  he  was  willing  to  take  the  great  risk  of  an  attempt  to 
escape.  But  the  smoke  of  his  vessels  was  easily  seen  as  they 
steamed  toward  the  mouth  of  the  harbor.  The  blockaders 
promptly  formed  in  line  of  battle,  and  a  fierce  sea-fight  fol 
lowed.  In  a  few  hours  our  ships  and  sailors  won  the  day. 
Every  one  of  the  enemy's  craft  was  either  burned  or  sunk, 
and  Cervera  was  taken  prisoner.  This  virtually  ended  the 
war  in  Cuba.  Within  a  fortnight  Santiago  surrendered,  and 
very  soon  the  island  was  freed  from  Spanish  control. 

In  Porto  Rico  there  was  still  some  fighting  to  be  done 
during  the  next  few  weeks.  Our  troops  were  carrying  every 
thing  before  them,  wrhen,  on  August  12,  news  came  that 
the  two  Governments  had  on  that  day  agreed  to  stop  their 
conflict  and  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace. 

405.  The  cost  of  the  war.  The  Spanish-American  War 
had  lasted  but  a  little  over  three  months.  The  direct  ex 
penditures  for  our  army  and  navy  had  reached  the  enor 
mous  sum  of  $165,000,000.  At  the  same  time  the  expenses 
of  every  other  department  of  the  Government  were  also 
greatly  increased  because  of  the  war,  so  that  the  total  cost 
to  us  was  probably  over  half  a  billion  dollars.  Our  death 

1  This  daring  and  dangerous  exploit  was  conducted  by  Lieutenant  Hobson. 
He  and  his  men  were  captured  by  the  Spanish. 


446      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

losses  in  battle  were  less  than  400;  but  nearly  3000  American 
soldiers  died  from  camp  diseases  and  other  causes. 

We  had  not  been  prepared  for  the  contest.  There  was  at 
first  some  blundering,  for  few  of  our  officers  had  had  much 
practice  in  managing  large  bodies  of  troops  and  in  collecting 
supplies  for  them.  But  the  war  once  more  showed  that  even 
when  they  lack  experience,  American  soldiers  and  sailors  are 
good  fighters.  They  displayed  great  dash  and  bravery,  and 
they  won  every  battle,  both  on  land  and  sea. 

For  the  first  time  since  the  Civil  War,  Northern  and 
Southern  men 1  had  fought  and  camped  side  by  side,  under 
the  flag  of  the  Union.  In  this  experience  they  came  to  know 
each  other  intimately,  and  formed  friendships  that  have 
helped  greatly  in  reuniting  the  two  sections.  This  was  one 
fruit  of  the  Spanish  War  that  will  bring  us  lasting  benefit.2 

406.  The  treaty  of  peace  and  the  territory  it  brought  to 
us.  The  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  was  signed  by  represent 
atives  of  the  two  nations  on  December  10,  1898.  It  was, 
however,  not  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  until 
February  6,  1899.  From  this  agreement  came  several  im 
portant  results :  - 

(a)  Spain  surrendered  Cuba  to  the  Cubans.  The  United 
States  generously  spent  large  sums  of  money  and  much  time 
and  care  in  restoring  order  in  the  island,  cleaning  up  its 
cities,  and  instructing  the  Cubans  how  to  govern  and  care 
for  themselves.  Our  troops  were  then  withdrawn,  and  the 
islanders  formed  a  republic  of  their  own  ( 1 902) .  But  in  doing 
so  they  promised  that  if  the  young  nation  should  get  into 

1  The  leading  Southern  officers  serving  in  this  war  were  Generals  Fitzhugh 
Lee,  a  nephew  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  and  Joseph  Wheeler. 

2  Another  worthy  result  was  to  bring  into  prominence  the  American  Red 
Cross  Society,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  international  organization  of  that  name. 
In  this  our  women  take  a  large  part.  They  did  the  same  splendid  work  in  caring 
for  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  in  1898  that  the  Sanitary  Commission  had  done 
in  our  Civil  War.  The  Red  Cross  is  just  as  effective  in  peace  as  it  is  in  war.   It 
rights  such  widespread  diseases  as  consumption.   It  helps  the  needy  in  times  of 
great  fires,  floods,  or  other  national  disasters.   During  calamities  in  other  lands, 
like  the  Italian  earthquake  in  1909  and  the  famine  in  China  in  1911,  the  Red 
Cross  collects  money  and  supplies  in  America  and  sends  them  to  the  afflicted 
country. 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE  447 

trouble  with  any  foreign  country,  or  the  liberty,  property, 
or  lives  of  the  people  should  need  protection,  the  United 
States  should  have  the  right  again  to  take  charge  of  its  affairs. 
Four  years  later  (1906)  there  was  an  insurrection  against  the 
President  of  Cuba,  and  he  resigned.  Our  Government  was 
asked  to  and  did  restore  order.  Under  the  wise  management 
of  William  H.  Taft,  the  provisional  governor  appointed  by 
the  United  States,  several  needful  reforms  were  begun,  and 
a  new  set  of  native  officers  were  elected.  After  this  we  again 
withdrew,  hoping  that  the  Cubans  would  be  more  success 
ful  in  their  second  attempt  to  govern  themselves. 

(b)  The  Philippines  were  sold  to  the  United  States  for 
$20,000,000^    At  first,  the  Filipinos  would  not  consent  to 
become  subjects  of  the  United  States;  they  wished  to  carry 
out  their  plan  of  forming  a  republic,  and  governing  them 
selves.  For  three  years  they  carried  on  an  insurrection  against 
us,  under  the  leadership  of  Aguinaldo,  and  our  army  had 
many  fights  with  them.    Finally,  order  was  restored,  and 
most  of  the  civilized  inhabitants  of  the  islands  now  seem  to 
be  contented  with  our  rule.    We  have  established  among 
them  schools  and  libraries,  have  done  much  to  develop  their, 
industries,  and  are  trying  to  civilize  some  of  the  wild  tribes. 
The  principal  officers  of  the  Philippine  Government  are 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  but  the 
natives  have  their  own  legislature.  When  the  islanders  have 
acquired  the  difficult  art  of  self-government,  no  doubt  the 
United   States   will   grant   them   complete   independence. 
Meanwhile  they  are  to  remain  under  our  protection  and 
guidance. 

(c)  Porto  Rico  became  the  property  of  the  United  States. 2 

1  This  enormous  archipelago  comprises  about  three  thousand  islands,  of  which 
many  are  merely  barren  rocks.    The  largest  is  Mindanao,  very  nearly  the  size 
of  Pennsylvania.     Luzon,  whose  capital  is  Manila,  the  largest  Filipino  town, 
is  about  as  big  as  Ohio.  The  soil  of  the  archipelago  is  generally  fertile,  and  the 
population  is  not  far  from  7,500,000,  of  whom  about  a  million  are  still  in  the 
savage  state.    When  the  Americans  took  charge,  there  were  on  the  islands 
about  25,000  Europeans  and  40,000  Chinese,  in  whose  hands  are  a  large  share  of 
the  industries  of  the  archipelago. 

2  The  island  is  nearly  three  times  the  size  of  Rhode  Island,  and  has  a  popu 
lation  of  a  little  over  1,000,000,  a  third  of  whom  are  colored.    They  were  soon 


448      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

(d)  Guam  was  also  ceded  to  us  by  Spain.  This  is  the 
largest  and  southernmost  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean.1 

407.  The  annexation  of  Hawaii  and  other  Pacific  islands. 
The  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  are  collect 
ively  known  as  Hawaii  had  been  under  American  protec 
tion  since  1 893.2    The  leading  inhabitants  of  the  archipelago 
asked  the  United  States  to  annex  it.    But  our  Government 
hesitated  to  do  this,  for  at  that  time  few  Americans  thought 
it  wise  for  us  to  own  such  far-away  territory. 

The  Spanish-American  War,  however,  caused  a  remark 
able  change  in  American  ideas  about  territorial  expansion. 
After  Dewey's  victory  at  Manila,  it  was  realized  that  if  we 
were  to  keep  possession  of  the  Philippines  we  should  have 
to  defend  them.  We  could  not  do  this  unless  we  had  coal 
ing  and  telegraph  stations  for  our  navy,  scattered  at  con 
venient  places  through  the  Pacific  Ocean.  For  this  reason 
we  annexed  Hawaii  in  1898. 

The  next  year  (1899)  England,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  divided  between  them  the  Samoan  Islands,  in  the 
South  Pacific.  Several  of  this  group  fell  to  our  share ;  among 
them  is  the  large  island  of  Tutuila,  which  contains  the  fine 
harbor  of  Pango  Pango.  We  have  also  taken  possession  in 
that  quarter  of  the  world  of  several  other  small  islands  that 
had  not  been  claimed  by  European  powers. 

408.  We  become  a  world  power.    Before  the  Spanish- 
American  War  the  United  States  held  possessions  only  on 

given  a  Territorial  Government  of  their  own.    Our  President  appoints  the 
governor  and  some  other  officers,  but  the  islanders  elect  the  legislature. 

1  It  is  a  hundred  miles  in  circumference,  is  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  and  has 
a  population  of  about  9,000.    During  the  war  it  had  been  seized  by  the  United 
States  for  use  as  a  station  for  our  naval  vessels  to  stock  up  with  coal  and  other 
supplies. 

2  Of  the  population  of  nearly  200,000,  over  a  half  are  Chinese  and  Japanese; 
a  fifth  are  Hawaiians,  and  there  are  nearly  that  number  of  whites,  many  of 
whom  are  Americans.   Sugar-making  is  the  chief  industry.   The  land  area   is 
about  6,500  square  miles,  or  three  fourths  the  size  of  New  Jersey.  In  January, 
1893,  there  was  a  successful  revolution  against  the  Hawaiian  Queen.    A  pro 
visional  government  was  formed,  under  American  protection,  to  serve  until 
"terms  of  union  with  the  United  States  of  America  should  be  negotiated  and 
agreed  upon."  ' 


THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER      449 

the  continent  of  North  America.  Except  for  the  acquisi 
tion  of  Alaska,  its  territorial  growth  had  been  merely  an 
extension  of  its  borders.  But  the  War  of  1898  virtually 
forced  upon  us,  in  one  way  or  another,  numerous  distant 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  We  thus  greatly 
expanded  our  bounds,  and  to  our  former  interests  and  tasks 
as  a  nation  we  have  added  what  the  poet  Kipling  calls  "  the 
white  man's  burden  " — that  is,  the  difficult  duty  of  govern 
ing  and  educating  millions  of  uncivilized  men  living  in  dis- 


THE   UNITED  STATES  AND  ITS   POSSESSIONS 
(Shown  by  shading  and  by  names  in  heavy  type) 

tant  parts  of  the  earth.  We  cannot  protect  the  Filipinos  and 
Samoans  without  being  brought  into  dealings  with  the  great 
nations  of  Asia;  also  with  those  of  Europe  who  have  colo 
nies  in  the  Far  East  that  lie  near  to  our  own. 

Having  suddenly  acquired  such  interests  and  neigh 
bors  as  these,  we  could  no  longer  prevent  ourselves  from 
becoming  at  last  a  "world  power"  -a  term  given  to 
those  countries  that  feel  it  necessary,  because  of  their  far- 
off  colonies,  to  take  part  in  all  important  matters  having 
to  do  with  the  peace,  comfort,  or  civilization  of  the  whole 
world. 


450      THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

409.  The  Chinese  Boxer  uprising  and  the  "  open  door." 

The  very  next  year  after  we  became  a  world  power,  our 
Government  was  obliged  to  take  part  in  an  important  re 
form  in  China.  That  country  is  great  in  size,  but  has  devel 
oped  little  military  strength.  Beginning  about  1895,  several 
European  powers  took  advantage  of  her  weakness,  and  on 
one  pretext  or  another  seized  for  themselves  large  portions 
of  her  seacoast.  Each  hoped  to  control  its  own  tract,  so  that 
only  its  citizens  might  carry  on  trade  with  the  Chinese 
inhabitants.  But  in  1899  John  Hay,  then  our  Secretary  of 
State,  urged  the  Europeans  to  give  to  the  citizens  of  every 
country  an  equal  chance  to  trade  in  China.  He  said  that 
there  ought  to  be  an  "  open  door  "  to  that  vast  land. 

While  Mr.  Hay  and  the  Europeans  wrere  discussing  this 
matter,  serious  disturbances  arose  in  China  (May,  1900). 
A  large  body  of  ignorant  fanatics,  called  "  Boxers,"  tried 
to  exterminate  all  foreigners.  Aided  by  native  soldiers  they 
killed  many  Americans  and  Europeans  and  burned  their 
houses  and  mission  stations.  For  nearly  two  months  they 
besieged  the  houses  of  foreign  ambassadors  in  the  great 
city  of  Peking,  and  it  required  19,000  soldiers  and  sailors 
from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  and 
Japan  to  put  down  the  uprising.  China  was  forced  to  pay 
large  damages  to  the  nations  whose  citizens  had  been  badly 
treated.  A  few  years  later,  however,  her  Government  began 
to  show  proper  respect  to  foreigners.  Thereupon  the  United 
States  returned  all  of  its  share  of  this  indemnity,  except  sc 
much  as  was  actually  necessary  to  pay  for  losses  sustained 
by  Americans. 

About  this  time,  also,  our  Government  secured  promises 
from  European  nations  to  establish  the  "  open  door  "  to 
China,  for  which  Mr.  Hay  had  asked.  This  stopped  the 
further  splitting-up  of  that  country ;  for  so  long  as  Europeans 
could  no  longer  keep  the  commerce  of  China  to  themselves, 
there  was  little  use  of  their  seizing  any  more  of  its  land.1 

1  China  felt  grateful  to  us  for  our  generosity,  and  is  now  one  of  our  best  friends. 
Each  year  her  Government  sends  over  many  carefully  selected  students  to  be 


THE  HAGUE  PEACE  TRIBUNAL  451 

410.  The  Hague  Peace  Tribunal.  In  1899  the  principal 
nations  of  Europe,  together  with  Japan  and  the  United  States, 
established  a  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  to  sit  at  The 
Hague,  the  capital  of  Holland.  This  court  consists  of  judges 
from  all  the  leading  countries.    Its  object  is  to  decide  such 
international  disputes  as  may  be  referred  to  it,  and  thus  to 
do  away,  as  far  as  possible,  with  the  necessity  for  war.    It 
has  already  settled  several  important  international  disputes, 
and  always  to  the  satisfaction  of  both  sides.    In  the  future 
its  services  will  no  doubt  be  more  frequently  called  on  than 
they  have  been  in  the  past.1 

411.  The  establishment  of  a  gold  standard.  When  the 
United  States  Mint  was  first  opened  at  Philadelphia  (1792), 
and  we  began  our  decimal  system  of  coinage,  the  silver  dollar 
was  made  "  the  unit  of  value,"  or  the  standard  for  that  sys 
tem.    In  after  years  this  coin  was,  for  that  reason,  often 
spoken  of  as  "  the  dollar  of  our  fathers." 

During  the  Civil  War,  however,  the  people  chiefly  used 
paper  money.  In  fact,  they  found  that  paper  was  more  con 
venient  to  carry  than  coin.  By  the  year  1873  silver  was 
little  used,  except  for  change,  anywhere  in  the  world,  save 
in  Asia.  Congress  therefore  ordered  that  the  old-time  silver 
dollar  be  no  longer  made,2  and  that  our  only  coins  be  of 
gold,  silver  for  fractional  currency,  and  copper. 

It  seemed,  however,  that  many  Americans  had  a  real 
affection  for  the  dollar  of  our  fathers,  and  this  action  by 
Congress  gave  rise  to  much  opposition.  After  a  time  Con 
gress  restored  the  silver  dollar,  and  during  several  years  large 

educated  in  our  schools  and  colleges;  they  are  supported  from  the  indemnity 
fund  returned  by  the  United  States.  These  young  men  are  expected  to  instruct 
the  Chinese  in  American  ideas  and  methods. 

1  Andrew  Carnegie,  of  New  York,  has  given  the  money  to  erect  a  palace  at 
The  Hague  for  the  meetings  of  the  Tribunal  and  of  the  world's  peace  conferences 
which  are  frequently  held  in  that  city.    In  1910  he  gave  a  fund  of  $10,000,000, 
the  income  of  which  is  to  be  used  "to  hasten  the  abolition  of  international 
war  and  to  establish  a  lasting  peace."    Mr.  Carnegie  likewise  gave  $750,000 
toward  the  building  of  a  home  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  the  Bureau  of  the 
American  Republics,  which  aims  to  bring  about  better  relations   between  our 
selves  and  the  Spanish-American  countries. 

2  A  "trade  dollar"  was  authorized,  however.    This  was  worth  less  than  a 
dollar,  and  was  for  use  in  our  trading  with  Asiatic  countries. 


452      THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

quantities  of  them  were  made.  But  new  veins  of  silver  were 
now  rather  frequently  being  discovered  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  so  that  the  market  value  of  this  metal  varied 
considerably  at  different  times.  Once  the  amount  of  silver 
in  a  dollar  was  worth  only  61  cents  in  gold.  This  led  Con 
gress  again  to  make  a  change,  and  after  1893  few  silver 
dollars  were  coined. 

Finally,  in  1900,  the  United  States  decided  to  follow  the 
practice  of  most  other  leading  nations  and  establish  gold  as 
its  only  standard.1  The  value  of  all  other  money  in  the 
United  States  is  at  present,  therefore,  measured  by  that  of 
a  gold  dollar. 

But  this  action  on  the  part  of  our  Government  was,  in 
advance  of  its  being  taken,  stoutly  opposed  in  some  parts 
of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  silver- 
producing  region.    Under  the  influence 
of  their  presidential  candidate,  William 
Jennings  Bryan,  of  Nebraska,  the  Dem 
ocratic  party  in  1896  advocated  in  their 
national  platform  "The  free  and  unlim 
ited  coinage  of  both  silver  and  gold," 
on  the  basis  of  an  ounce  of  gold  being 
worth  sixteen  times  as  much  as  an  ounce 
of  silver.   Bryan  was  defeated,  for  the 
men  of  his  own  party  who  opposed  this 
WILLIAM  j.  BRYAN      "free  silver"  plank  supported  the  Re 
publican  candidate.    He  was  renomin- 
ated  in  1900  and  again  in  1908,  but  each  time  met  defeat. 
412.  The  Pan-American  Exposition.    During  President 
McKinley's  term  of  office  an  international  fair  of  unusual 
character  was  held  in  the  United  States.   This  was  the  Pan- 
American  Exposition  (1901)  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  the  pur 
pose  of  which  was  to  exhibit  to  the  world  the  commerce, 
remarkable  inventions,  agricultural,  mining,  and  forestry  re 
sources,  and  various  arts  and  industries  of  North,  South,  and 

1  Discoveries  of  gold  are  less  frequent  than  those  of  silver.  For  that  reason 
the  market  value  of  the  former  is  the  more  steady  of  the  two.  This  is  why  gold 
has  been  selected  as  the  world's  standard. 


THE  PAN-AMERICAN  EXPOSITION  453 

Central  America.  It  was  also  hoped  that  the  fair  would  en 
courage  a  larger  commerce  between  the  several  nations  of 
the  New  World.1 

413.  Assassination  of  President  McKinley.  The  Presi 
dent  visited  the  exposition  at  Buffalo  on  September  5  and  6.2 
On  the  latter  day,  while  a  reception  was  being  given  to  him 
in  one  of  the  exhibition  buildings,  he  was  shot  twice  by  a 
young  anarchist.  President  McKinley  lingered  for  eight  days, 
during  which  there  were  some  hopes  of  his  recovery ;  but  he 
passed  away  on  the  morning  of  the  I4th.  His  needless  death 
was  sincerely  mourned  by  the  entire  nation. 

A  few  hours  later,  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution, 
the  Vice- President,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  took  the  oath  of 
office  as  President. 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  To  what  problems  has  the  growth  of  cities  given  rise? 

2.  Contrast  the  ease  of  the  Government  in  obtaining  money  in  1898  with 
the  difficulty  it  had  in  raising  money  in  the  Revolutionary  and  Civil 
Wars.    Explain. 

3.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  Red-Cross  Society.    It  can  be  found  in 
Johnston's  The  Little  Colonels  Hero. 

4.  "The  issue  of  battles  imposes  its  burdens  on  the  victor."    What  new 
burden  became  ours  after  the  Spanish-American  War? 

5.  Name  the  wars,  their  causes,  dates,  and  the  results,  in  which  this  coun 
try  has  been  engaged. 

6.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

7.  Important  date:  1898  —  Spanish-American  War. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  such  an  editorial  as  you  think  might  have  appeared  in  many  of 
the  newspapers  of  the  land  the  day  after  the  destruction  of  the  Maine. 

2.  Imagine  that  you  were  with  Dewey  at  Manila.  Write  a  letter  home, 
telling  of  your  personal  part  in  the  action. 

3.  An  ex-Federal,  an  ex-Confederate,  and  youths  from  North  and  South 
are  gathered  around  a  camp-fire  in  Cuba.   Write  and  dramatize  their 
conversation. 

4.  Write  a  brief  account  of  the  history  of  Spain  in  North  America. 

1  In   1898   another  interesting  fair,  the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition,  had 
been  held  at  Omaha,  Nebraska. 

2  He  had  entered  upon  his  second  term  of  office,  March  4,  1901. 


CHAPTER   XLVI 


THE    PANAMA    CANAL:    CONSERVATION    OF    NATIONAL 

RESOURCES:  THREE  IMPORTANT  LAWS 
1901-1909 

414.  The  Panama  Canal.  Ever  since  the  Spaniards  dis 
covered  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  there  has  been  more  or  less 
talk  of  cutting  a  canal  through  it,  so  that  ocean-going  vessels 

might  easily  pass  to  and  fro 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  However,  not  until 
1 88 1  was  such  a  project  actu 
ally  started.  In  that  year  a 
French  Panama  Canal  Com 
pany  commenced  operations; 
but  after  eight  years  they  aban 
doned  the  task. 

For  several  years  nothing 
further  was  done  about  the 
matter.  The  United  States 
then  made  her  first  move.  A 
few  months  after  Theodore 
Roosevelt  became  President 
(in  I9OI),1  our  Government 
signed  a  canal  treaty  with 

1  Theodore  Roosevelt  was  born  in  New  York  in  1 858.  He  graduated  from  Har 
vard  University  in  1880.  He  was  amember  of  the  New  York  Legislature  (1882- 
84),  a  United  States  Civil  Service  Commissioner  (1889-95),  president  of  the 
New  York  City  Police  Board  (1895-97),  and  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
(1897-98).  After  serving  in  the  Spanish  War  he  was  governor  of  New  York 
(1899-1900),  being  elected  Vice-President  when  McKinley  was  elected  President 
for  a  second  term.  Mr.  Roosevelt  was  elected  President  for  the  term  of  1905-09 
by  the  largest  popular  majority  ever  given  to  a  candidate  for  this  office.  When 
he  retired  from  the  presidency,  he  headed  a  scientific  party  in  East  Africa  that 
secured  natural  history  specimens  for  the  National  Museum  at  Washington. 
He  has  written  many  books  on  American  history  and  on  his  numerous  hunting 
expeditions. 


PACIFIC 

o  c  E  A  y 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL  AND  THE 
CANAL  ZONE 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL  455 

Great  Britain.  It  was  agreed  between  the  two  nations  that 
the  United  States  should  dig  this  canal.  When  completed, 
it  was  to  be  our  property  and  under  our  control ;  but  it  must 
be  open  to  "  vessels  of  commerce  and  of  war  of  all  nations 
...  on  terms  of  entire  equality."  Therefore,  we  bought  the 
rights  and  property  of  the  French  company  for  $40,000,000, l 
and  after  some  ten  years'  labor,  in  1914  completed  the 
canal  which  they  had  begun. 

Now  that  this  work  is  finished,  merchant  and  war  vessels 
of  the  largest  size,  belonging  to  every  nation  of  the  world, 
may  readily  pass  from  one  ocean  to  the  other,  and  thus 
save  the  long  and  often  perilous  journey  around  South 
America.2  By  this  means  our  eastern  and  western  coasts 
will  be  brought  much  nearer  together  than  before;  and  the 
farmers  and  manufacturers  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley 
may  then  ship  their  goods  direct  to  every  port  on  the 
Pacific. 

415,  A  cable  message  around  the  world,  and  wireless 
telegraphy.  Americans  had  been  the  first  to  span  the 
Atlantic  with  a  telegraphic  cable.  On  July  4,  1903,  there 
was  opened  for  messages  an  American  cable  across  the  still 
broader  Pacific,  by  way  of  Honolulu,  Manila,  and  Hong 
kong.  This  at 'last  completed  the  telegraphic  circuit  around 
the  globe,  and  realized  Professor  Morse's  fond  desire.3  The 
first  dispatch  on  the  opening  day,  over  the  entire  length  of 
wires  from  New  York  around  to  New  York,  was  sent  by 
President  Roosevelt.  His  words  were:  "  Congratulations 
and  success  to  the  Pacific  Cable!  "  He  also  sent  by  the  cable 
cordial  greetings  to  Mr.  Taft,  who  was  then  governor  of 
the  far-away  Philippines. 

A  few  months  before  this  incident  the  President  had  sent 
(January  18,  1903)  a  friendly  message  to  King  Edward 

1  The  distance  across  the  Isthmus,  from  ocean  to  ocean,  at  the  site  of  the 
canal,  is  but  forty  and  one  half  miles.   In  1903  the  United  States  acquired  from 
the  Republic  of  Panama  a  wide  strip  of  land  on  either  side  of  the  canal,  called  the 
Canal  Zone,  which  is  governed  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  President. 

2  The  canal  decreases  the  distance  by  sea  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco, 
by  8500  miles.   From  New  York  to  Australia,  it  cuts  off  4000  miles. 

3  See  page  291. 


456      THE  UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

VII  of  Great  Britain  by  means  of  the  Marconi  wireless  tele 
graph.  It  was  the  first  important  communication  across  the 
Atlantic  by  this  marvelous  new  system.  But  since  that  time 
"wireless"  has  become  quite  familiar  to  us  all.  It  is  now 
much  used  for  messages  between  land  stations  and  ships  at 
sea,  and  between  the  ships  themselves.  Ocean  disasters 
have  frequently  been  prevented  in  this  way;  for  a  vessel  in 
distress  can,  by  her  wireless  apparatus,  summon  help  from 
other  craft  within  a  range  of  hundreds  of  miles. 

416.  Roosevelt  as  a  peacemaker.  The  President  made 
several  successful  attempts  to  bring  about  a  spirit  of  good 
will  between  various  nations.1  His 
greatest  service  of  this  kind  was  in 
the  summer  of  1905.  For  a  year  and 
<  a  half  Russia  and  Japan  had  been  en 
gaged  in  a  terrible  war.  There  had 
been  an  appalling,  loss  of  life  and 
property  in  this  conflict,  and  it  had 
almost  put  a  stop  to  American  and 
European  commerce  with  the  Far 
East.  When  it  was  clearly  seen  that 

Copyright,  Harris  and  Ewing       Japan    WaS    going    tO    win,     the 
THEODORE   ROOSEVELT      dent  persuaded  both  nations  to 

peace,  not  only  for  their  own  good  but  for  the  good  of  all 
the  world.  They  wisely  decided  to  take  his  advice,  and 
their  commissioners  met  for  this  purpose  at  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  where  a  satisfactory  treaty  was  signed  on 
September  5.2 

1  During  his  Administration  (1905)  our  country  agreed  with  Mexico  and 
several  other  Spanish-American  republics  to  arbitrate  future  disputes  when 
ever  possible. 

In  1903  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy  blockaded  the  ports  of  Vene 
zuela  in  order  to  force  that  country  to  pay  certain  debts  which  it  owed  to  citi 
zens  of  those  nations.  President  Roosevelt  protested  against  this,  as  a  violation 
of  the  spirit  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  The  blockade  was  accordingly  withdrawn, 
and  the  case  went  to  The  Hague  Tribunal  for  arbitration. 

2  Because  of  his  services  in  this  and  other  international  quarrels,  the  Presi 
dent  was  in  1906  awarded  the  Nobel  Peace  Prize.  This  is  given  each  year  by  the 
Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences  to  prominent  persons  who  have  helped  to  bring 
about  peace  between  nations. 


ROOSEVELT  AS  A   PEACEMAKER  457 

Not  only  was  the  President  a  peacemaker  in  international 
disputes.  In  1902  he  brought  to  an  end  a  fierce  contest  in  our 
own  country,  between  capitalists  and  laborers.  A  hundred 
and  forty  thousand  miners  of  anthracite  coal  in  Pennsyl 
vania  had  struck  because  the  mine-owners  would  not  grant 
them  a  shorter  working-day  and  higher  wages.  The  strikers 
had  insisted,  too,  that  the  owners  should  make  all  bargains 


from  a  model 

A  SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  AN  ANTHRACITE  COAL   MINE 

The  larger  buildings  are  the  "  coal-breakers  "  in  which  the  coal  is  prepared  and  sorted  into  sizes  for  the 
market.  To  their  left  is  the  "  shaft,"  or  entrance  to  the  mine,  with  the  hoisting  and  pumping  ma 
chinery.  Passages  for  ventilating  the  mine  and  for  drawing  water  from  it  are  contained  in  the  shaft. 
Seams  of  coal  are  represented  by  the  broad  black  lines.  "  Tunnels,"  starting  from  the  shaft,  are  bored 
horizontally,  or  nearly  so,  across  each  seam,  and  other  passages  ("  gangways")  are  excavated  in  the 
seams  themselves.  These  form  the  base  from  which  further  workings  of  the  mine  are  begun.  They 
are  shown  in  the  seam  at  the  bottom  of  the  illustration 

about  the  conditions  of  labor  through  the  officers  of  the 
unions,  and  not  with  the  individual  miners.  For  five  months 
no  coal  whatever  was  taken  from  the  shafts.  It  began  to 
look  as  though  the  people  of  the  United  States  would  not 
have  any  hard  coal  to  burn  in  their  stoves  and  furnaces 
during  the  coming  winter.  There  was,  consequently,  great 
anxiety  in  hundreds  of  thousands  of  homes.  But  as  usual, 
in  such  cases,  the  families  of  the  miners  were  the  greatest 
sufferers,  for  the  bread-winners  throughout  a  wide  region 
of  country  were  earning  no  wages.  At  last  both  the  em- 


458      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

ployers  and  the  employees  consented  to  submit  the  dispute 
to  a  Coal  Strike  Commission  which  was  appointed  by  the 
President.  This  body  carefully  inquired  into  the  matter  and 
gave  a  decision  which  the  owners  and  their  men  obeyed 
without  hesitation.  Ever  since  then,  most  of  the  industrial 
disputes  in  the  anthracite  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania  have 
been  settled  by  arbitration. 

417.  Our  battle  fleet  encircles  the  globe.  Although  the 
President  was  a  peacemaker  he  insisted  that  we  should  have 
a  strong  navy.1  He  declared  that  a  show  of  strength  would 
of  itself  bring  peace,  for  then  no  nation  would  dare  attack 
us.    He  wanted 

the  world  to 
know  that  we 
had  many  well- 
equipped  war 
ships  in  our 
navy,  and  well- 
trained  officers 
and  sailors ;  and 
he  wanted  both 
ships  and  men  to 
have  some  use 
ful  practice  on  a 

long  cruise.  He  therefore,  in  1907,  ordered  one  of  our  fleets, 
comprising  sixteen  battleships,  to  go  on  a  voyage  around 
the  globe.  The  total  distance  traveled  was  40,000  miles, 
the  longest  voyage  ever  made  by  so  powerful  a  fleet. 
Wherever  they  touched  shore,  along  the  entire  route,  the 
American  "  jackies"  received  most  friendly  greetings. 

418.  Two  fires  and  an  earthquake.  During  Roosevelt's 
Administration  the  United  States  was  visited  by  two  great 
disasters.     The  first  was  a  fire  in  Baltimore  (1904)  which 
destroyed  $50,000,000  \vorth  of  property.    But  with  sur- 

1  Between  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  and  the  administrations  of  Garfield  and 
Arthur,  we  made  few  additions  to  our  navy.  But  at  that  time  the  Government 
began  to  build  modern  warships,  like  those  of  other  nations.  The  new  American 
navy  grew  slowly,  but  it  is  now  one  of  the  strongest  in  the  world. 


Courtesy,  Ifdvy  Department 

THE  BATTLESHIP   NEW  YORK 

Keel  laid,  1911,  at  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard.  Displacement,  27,000  tons ; 
length,  565  feet ;  crew,  1000  officers  and  men.  Cost,  £12,000,000.  A  sistev 
ship,  the  Oklahoma,  was  begun  at  the  same  time.  Battleships  author 
ized  since  are  even  larger  and  more  expensive 


NATIONAL   CONSERVATION 


459 


prising  rapidity  the  people  of  that  large  and  beautiful  city 
rebuilt  the  burned  district  and  made  it  more  attractive 
than  ever. 

The  second  loss  was  much  more  serious.  In  1906  San 
Francisco  was  the  victim  of  an  earthquake  which  overthrew 
and  shattered  a  large  number  of  buildings.  A  fire  at  once 
broke  out  in  the  ruins,  and  this  greatly  increased  the  extent 
of  the  calamity.  Within  a  short  time  property  worth  over 
$400,000,000  had  been  destroyed,  and  refugees  without 


Courtesy,  Collier's  Weekly 


A   PART   OF  SAN   FRANCISCO,  1911 


Less  than  five  years  before  this  photograph  was  taken,  this  section  of  the  city  was  a  heap  of  hot  ashes, 
the  result  of  the  fire  and  earthquake 

a  shelter  filled  the  streets.  As  soon  as  the  broken  tele 
graph  wires  could  be  mended,  an  appeal  for  help  went 
out  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Physicians,  nurses, 
workmen,  food,  clothing,  tools,  and  money  soon  came  pour 
ing  in  by  every  train  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  for 
nearly  every  city,  village,  and  hamlet  in  our  land  sent  aid 
of  some  sort  to  the  earthquake  sufferers.  Within  less  than 
four  years  San  Francisco  was  largely  reconstructed  by  her 
courageous  citizens,  and  the  visitor  of  to-day  finds  there 
few  traces  of  the  terrible  experience  of  1906. 

419.  Conservation,  and  the  "  House  of  Governors."  The 
United  States  and  its  various  territorial  possessions  have 
greater  natural  resources  than  any  other  civilized  country  in 


460      THE   UNITED   STATES  A   WORLD   POWER 

the  world.  These  consist  of  fisheries,  game,  forests,  pastures 
on  the  Western  Plains,  fertile  soil,  water-power,  rivers  to 
irrigate  our  arid  lands,  petroleum,  natural  gas,  mines  of  coal 
and  useful  metals,  and  quarries.  During  the  years  when 
pioneers  were  felling  the  hard-wood  forests  to  make  room 
for  their  farms,  and  the  great  pine  woods  were  rapidly  being 
cut  down  for  timber  with  which  to  build  villages  and  cities, 
we  often  greatly  wasted  our  resources.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  this  waste  is  still  going  on.  But  nearly  everybody 
now  realizes  that  unless  care  is  taken,  there  will  be  no  re- 


THE   LUMBER   TRADE   IN    THE   NORTHWEST 

A  scene  near  the  largest  sawmills  in  the  world,  at  Port  Blakeley,  Washington.  These  vessels 
all  carry  away  cargoes  of  lumber 

sources  left  for  the  future  inhabitants  of  the  land.  We  must, 
therefore,  regulate  by  law  the  manner  in  which  and  when  and 
how  fast  these  resources  may  be  used.  This  policy  is  called 
"  conservation."  President  Roosevelt  was  its  warm  friend, 
and  he  did  much  to  make  the  people  understand  its  import 
ance. 

The  Federal  Government  can  conserve  the  resources  on 
lands  still  belonging  to  the  nation.  But  the  greater  part 
of  the  Union  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  States.  There 
fore  any  widespread  plan  for  conservation  can  only  be  car 
ried  out  by  the  united  action  of  the  States  and  of  the  Fed- 


THREE  IMPORTANT  LAWS  461 

eral  Government.  In  the  spring  of  1908  President  Roose 
velt  asked  the  governors  of  the  States  to  meet  with  him  in 
Washington  to  discuss  this  and  other  matters ;  and  a  simi 
lar  conference,  commonly  called  the  "  House  of  Governors,  " 
has  been  held  in  each  subsequent  year.  The  laws  do  not 
provide  for  such  meetings,  but  this  fact  does  not  prevent 
them  from  being  useful.  Already,  at  the  request  of  the  gov 
ernors,  many  of  the  State  legislatures  have  passed  laws  for 
the  better  regulation  and  protection  of  their  resources,  also 
for  other  improvements  in  the  manner  of  governing  States. 

The  Federal  Government  has  set  a  good  example  to  the 
States  by  stopping  much  of  the  waste  on  its  own  lands. 
Both  President  Roosevelt  and  his  successor,  President  Taf t, 
greatly  assisted  conservation  by  withdrawing  from  sale  to 
agricultural  settlers  many  millions  of  acres  belonging  to  the 
Federal  Government.  These  tracts  are  in  the  Far  West 
and  in  Alaska,  and  contain  forests,  mines,  and  water-powers. 

This  same  desire  to  save  our  resources  from  waste  caused 
Congress,  in  1911,  to  pass  laws  establishing  large  Federal 
forest  reserves  in  the  White  and  the  Appalachian  Moun 
tains.1 

420.  Three  important  laws.  The  year  1906  saw  the  pas 
sage  by  Congress  of  three  acts  that  provide  for  a  stricter 
regulation  of  some  other  matters  affecting  our  well-being  as 
a  people :  — 

(a)  The  Railway  Rate  Act.    This  gave  to  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  authority  to  fix  the  rates  that  rail 
way  companies  may  charge  for  carrying  freight  and  passen 
gers  between  one  State  and  another. 2 

(b)  The  Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act.    This  seeks  to  protect 
us  from  adulterations  in  our  foods  and  medicines.    It  de- 

1 A  large  number  of  rivers  and  lakes  have  their  headsprings  in  these  mountains. 
When  the  uplands  are  clothed  with  forests  the  moss  and  underbrush  act  as  a 
sponge  to  hold  the  rainfall  and  let  it  down  gradually  into  the  streams^  "But  when 
the  uplands  are  bare  the  rain  passes  off  quickly  and  turns  the  rivers  into  raging 
torrents,  which  do  much  damage.  In  a  dry  season  rivers  flowing  from  treeless 
mountains  shrink  to  almost  nothing,  and  leave  the  land  in  a  parched,  almost 
desert-like  condition. 

2  See  also  page  424. 


462      THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

dares  that  such  articles  must  not  be  offered  for  sale  under 
any  other  than  their  true  names. 

(c)  The  Meat  Inspection  Act.    This  provides  that  all  meat 


THE  CAPITOL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  AT  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 

offered  for  sale  shall  be  examined  by  Federal  inspectors,  to 
see  that  it  is  clean  and  healthful.1 

QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Your  parents  can  give  you  much  information  about  the  occurrences 
in  Roosevelt's  Administration.    Question  them  upon  some  of  the  im 
portant  ones. 

2.  Why  will  the  Panama  Canal  be  of  value  to  the  people  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast?  Of  the  Pacific  Coast?  Of  the  Mississippi  Valley? 

3.  Locate  the  Suez  Canal  and  compare  it  with  the  Panama  Canal. 

4.  The  names  of  what  three  men  are  associated  with  the  development  of 
telegraphy? 

5.  Let  some  one  pupil  look  up  the  route  of  the  battleship  fleet  in  its  cruise 
around  the  world  and  report  to  the  class,  with  the  aid  of  the  map. 

1  Anniversary  Expositions.  Two  important  international  expositions  were 
held  during  Roosevelt's  Administration  —  one  at  St.  Louis,  in  1904,  celebrating 
the  centennial  anniversary  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase;  the  other  at  Portland, 
Oregon,  in  1905,  held  in  honor  of  the  centennial  anniversary  of  Lewis  and 
Clark's  exploration  of  the  Columbia  River  Valley. 


THE   UNITED   STATES  A  WORLD   POWER      463 

6.  Which  do  you  think  of   the  greater  importance  —  the  Portsmouth 
Peace  Conference  or  the  trip  of  the  battleship  fleet  around  the  world? 
Explain. 

7.  Discuss  in  class  whether  the  present  great  annual  expenditure  for  new 
battleships  is  necessary. 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "conservation"  in  its  broadest  sense?   What 
are  you  doing  at  home  or  school  to  prevent  waste? 

9.  Compare  the  questions  before  the  people  in  Roosevelt's  Administra 
tion  with  public  questions  in  Washington's  Administration. 

to.  Make  an  outline  of  the  chapter. 

COMPOSITION   SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  or  tell  about  the  use  of  wireless  telegraphy  in  some  emergency 
at  sea,  of  which  you  have  read  or  heard.  Write  it  in  the  form  of  a  story 
if  you  wish. 

2.  Let  the  class  select  four  members,  each  of  whom  is  to  deliver  a  brief 
Friday  afternoon  address  on  one  of  the  following  subjects:  — 

The  Peace  Conference  at  Portsmouth. 

The  Pure  Food  Act. 

The  Meat  Inspection  Act. 

The  Conservation  of  Forests,  Mines,  and  Water  Powers. 

3.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  tell  what  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  con 
servation:  (a)  in  school;  (b)  in  his  neighborhood;  (c)  in  the  country  at 
large. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 

TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION:  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 
TARIFF  AND  RECIPROCITY:  THE  INSURGENT  MOVEMENT 

421.  William  Howard  Taft.   No  President  of  the  United 
States  has  ever  had  three  terms  in  office,  and  Washington 
(see  page  223)  urged  that  two  be  made  the  limit.    Accord 
ingly  President  Roosevelt  refused  to 
be  a  candidate  for  a   third  time  in 
1908.    He  advised,  instead,  that  his 
friend   and  Secretary  of  War,  Wil 
liam  Howard  Taft,1  of  Ohio,  be  nom 
inated  to  succeed  him.    The  Demo 
crats  for  the  third  time  nominated 
William  Jennings  Bryan,  and  in  the 
debate  that  followed  each  party  told 
the  people  that  it  would  try  to  carry 

WILLIAM  H.  TAFT         out  the  policies  of  social  betterment 
that  had  been  much  discussed  since 

1900.     Mr.  Taft  was  elected,  and  at  once  called  Congress 
to  meet  in  special  session  to  fulfill  the  pledges. 

422.  The  tariff  is  revised.    There  were  some  differences 
of  opinion  among  the  Republicans  as  to  how  to  revise  the 
tariff.      Most  of  those  who  lived  in  the  Eastern  States, 

1  William  H.  Taft  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1857,  graduated  from  Yale  Univer 
sity  in  1878,  and  began  life  as  a  lawyer  in  Cincinnati.  Before  being  elected 
President  he  was  judge  in  Ohio  (1887-90),  a  solicitor-general. of  the  United 
tates  (1890-92),  a  United  States  circuit  judge  (1892-1900),  president  of  the 
United  States  Philippine  Commission  (1900-04),  and  Secretary  of  War  in 
President  Roosevelt's  Cabinet  (1904-08).  While  in  the  last-named  office  he 
adjusted  the  Cuban  insurrection,  was  for  a  time  provisional  governor  cf  that 
island,  and  went  around  the  world  on  various  duties  connected  with  the  Fed 
eral  Government.  After  leaving  the  White  House  he  became  a  professor  of 
law  in  Yale  University,  and  in  1918  reentered  the  service  of  the  Government 
as  head  of  the  National  War  Labor  Board  which  is  engaged  in  adjusting  labor 
disputes. 


REVISION  OF  THE  TARIFF 


465 


Courtesy,  International  Harvester  Co. 

TRACTOR   ENGINE,   DRAWING   PLOUGHS 
Gasoline  engines  are  used  not  only  in  ploughing,  but  also  for  supplying 
power  for  harvesting  and  haying  machines,  and  for  all  farm  uses. 
Formerly  horses  or  oxen  were  used 


where  the  great  factories  are,-were  content  with  the  Dingley 
bill  as  it  was  (see  page  437).  But  in  some  of  the  Western 
States,  where  many  Republicans  were  farmers,  they  thought 
the  high  tariff  made  prices  high,  and  wanted  the  rates 
reduced.  Presi 
dent  Taft  did 
not  try  to  make 
Congress  pass  his 
own  kind  of  a 
tariff,  but  waited 
until  Congress 
had  done  its  work 
in  August  and 
then  signed  what 
was  called  the 
Payne-Aldrich 
tariff.  By  this 
time  the  discon 
tented  Western  Republicans  were  complaining  because  the 
rates  of  duties  were  not  being  lowered  and  were  saying  that 
the  high  tariff  Republicans  were  reactionary,  or  "  stand 
pat,"  and  favored  the  trusts. 

423.  The  Insurgents.   A  few  of  the  discontented  Repub 
licans  were  so  open  in  fighting  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff 
that  they  were  called  Insurgents,  and  as  the  Insurgents 
they  steadily  opposed  President  Taft  from  this  time.    In 
1910  the  Insurgents  and  Democrats,  voting  together,  were 
able  to  defeat  Republican  bills,  and  in  the  fall  elections  of 
that  year  the  quarrel  in  the  Republican  party  made  it  pos 
sible  for  the  Democrats  to  elect  a  majority  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  —  for  the  first  time  since  1892.    In  the 
new  Congress,  that  met  in   1911,  Champ  Clark,  of  Mis 
souri,  a  Democrat,  was  chosen  Speaker. 

424.  The  progressive  measures.    The  chief  demands  of 
the  Insurgents  were  for  changes  in  the  machinery  of  gov 
ernment  so  as  to  let  the  people  more  truly  rule  themselves. 
They  claimed  that  the  party  caucus  and  nominating  con- 


466       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

vention  made  it  possible  for  corrupt  bosses  to  control  them 
and  to  defy  the  people's  will;  and  that  the  courts  were 
too  conservative  and  too  willing  to  declare  progressive 

laws  unconstitu 
tional  and  void. 
Sometimes  the 
courts  declared 
void  laws  lim 
iting  the  hours 
of  labor  on  the 
ground  that  such 
limits  interfered 
with  the  right  of 
free  contract ;  in 


A  COMBINED  REAPING  AND  THRESHING 
MACHINE 

The  earliest  reaping  machine  was  drawn  by  two  horses.    In  those  days 
threshing  was  done  with  flails,  after  the  grain  had  been  taken  to  the' 

bams 


tO   recognize  the 

fact  that  in  mod- 

em  industry  the 

workman    must 
take  his  job  as 

it  is,  and  has  no  right  of  free  contract  except  to  accept 
the  job  as  offered  or  go  without  work. 

425.  Election  reforms.  The  last  great  victory  for  pop 
ular  government,  the  Australian  ballot,  had  made  it  possi 
ble  for  every  man  to  vote  in  secrecy  as  he  pleased  without 
fear  of  punishment  because  of  his  vote.  Now  the  short 
ballot  was  asked  for,  so  as  to  reduce  the  number  of  indi 
vidual  candidates  to  be  voted  for,  and  make  it  possible  for 
the  voter  to  know  something  about  each  of  them.  The 
initiative  was  now  advocated,  —  a  measure  allowing  citi 
zens  by  petition  to  start  or  initiate  a  new  law.  The  referen 
dum  was  a  means  of  determining  upon  the  final  passage  of 
a  law  by  popular  vote.  It  had  long  been  used  in  the  adop 
tion  of  State  constitutions,  or  local  debts,  or  prohibition, 
and  was  next  to  be  extended  to  general  laws.  The  recall 
\yas  a  method  of  removing  from  office  by  popular  referen 
dum  officials  who  had  behaved  badly  and  so  had  lost  the 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  467 

confidence  of  the  people.  Some  wanted  the  recall  to  ex 
tend  even  to  unpopular  decisions  of  the  courts.  The  direct 
primary  was  to  be  a  new  method  of  nominating  officers. 
It  was  to  be  in  substance  a  preliminary  election  with  the 
party,  protected  by  law,  as  the  result  of  which  candidates 
to  represent  the  party  in  the  final  election  were  to  be 
chosen.  The  candidates  at  the  primary  were  to  be  selected 
by  the  petitions  of  their  friends.  The  corrupt  practices  act 
was  a  law  to  punish  candidates  who  spent  too  much  money 
upon  their  election  or  who  used  unfair  or  dishonest  meth 
ods.  All  of  these  mechanical  reforms  were  popular  among 
progressive  citizens  as  well  as  among  the  Insurgents. 

426.  Peace  and  reciprocity.    President  Taft  was  deeply 
interested  in  maintaining  friendly  relations  with  all  the 
world.   During  1911  he  tried  in  various  ways  to  make  peace 
more  secure. 

(a)  He  arranged  an  agreement  for  reciprocity  with  Can 
ada,  by  which  certain  products  of  Canada  would  be  admitted 
freely  into  the  United  States  in  return  for  similar  treatment 
of  American  goods  going  into  Canada. 

(b)  He  also  negotiated  with  England  a  treaty  for  the 
arbitration  of  any  causes  which  might  arise  in  the  future, 
thus  advancing  the  policy  of  peaceful  settlement  of  dis 
putes  in  which  the  Geneva  arbitration  (see  page  403)  is  so 
great  an  example.    The  first  of  these,  reciprocity,  was  re 
jected  by  Canada;  the  second,  arbitration,  by  the  United 
States  Senate.     But  President  Taft  was  more  successful 
in  ending  the  old  difficulty  with  England  over  the  New 
foundland  Fisheries,  and  in  reaching  a  friendly  agreement 
with  Japan  concerning  the  immigration  of  Japanese  into 
the  United  States. 

427.  Mexico  in  trouble.    The  United  States  does  not 
protect  its  frontiers  with  forts,  and  expects  to  live  in  peace 
with  all  its  neighbors.    This  fact  made  it  difficult  to  pro 
tect  the  people  in  Texas  when,  in  1911,  a  civil  war  broke 
out  in  Mexico,  and  the  rebels  sometimes  crossed  the  Rio 
Grande  into  the  United  States,   robbing  and  murdering 


468       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

peaceful  American  citizens.  General  Porfirio  Diaz,  who 
had  been  president  of  Mexico  for  nearly  thirty-five  years, 
and  who  protected  private  property  while  exploiting  the 
national  resources,  was  driven  out  of  the  country  by 
Francisco  Madero,  who  succeeded  to  his  position.  Ma- 


AN  ARMY   ENCAMPMENT  NEAR  THE  MEXICAN  FRONTIER 


dero  claimed  to  be  trying  to  improve  the  position  of  the 
plain  farmers,  who  are  generally  part  Indian  in  blood,  and 
entirely  uneducated;  but  he  was  not  able  to  keep  law  and 
order.  To  protect  Texas  and.  to  prevent  bad  Americans 
from  aiding  in  the  Mexican  revolt,  President  Taft  sta 
tioned  a  large  part  of  the  army  along  the  border;  but  he 
refused  to  profit  by  Mexico's  trouble  or  to  invade  the 
country.  Early  in  1913,  Madero  was  murdered,  and  suc 
ceeded  by  General  Huerta,  whom  many  believed  to  have 
been  his  murderer. 

428.  The  forty-eighth  star.  During  Taft's  administra 
tion  the  forty-seventh  and  forty-eighth  stars  were  added 
to  the  American  flag.  The  old  policy  of  making  states  out 


LABOR  AND  CAPITAL 


4691 


of  territories  was  completed.  Most  of  the  States  of  the 
mountain  region  had  been  admitted  in  1889-90  (North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Montana,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  and 
Washington).  Utah,  the  forty-fifth,  had  followed  in  1896. 
Oklahoma  had  come  in  1907.  The  only  two  territories 
remaining  after  the  admission  of  Oklahoma,  were  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  These  territories  had  gained  in  pop 
ulation  slowly  because  so  much  of  their  land  was  dry  and 
barren.  Now,  at  last,  New  Mexico  in  1911  and  Arizona 
in  1912,  completed  the  process  of  making  free  states  out  of 
free  people.  The  habit  of  the  frontier  to  be  more  extreme 


THE  WESTWARD   MOVEMENT,   1790-1910 
3f:  Center  of  population;  .A.  center  of  manufactures 


in  its  democracy  than  the  rest  of  the  country  was  shown 
in  the  case  of  Arizona.  Because  of  an  article  in  the  constitu 
tion  of  this  State  providing  for  the  recall  of  Judges,  Presi 
dent  Taft  was  unwilling  to  have  the  State  admitted  to  the 
Union.  Accordingly  the  people  of  Arizona  withdrew  the 
offending  article  until  after  their  admission;  whereupon 
they  amended  the  constitution  to  restore  it.  In  Oklahoma 
the  new  State  proceeded  to  provide  for  a  State  guarantee 
of  the  safety  of  money  deposited  in  banks.  A  century 
earlier  the  Western  States  had  showed  their  liberalism  by 
removing  the  restrictions  upon  the  right  to  vote. 

429.  Labor  and  capital.  The  last  year  of  Taft's  adminis 
tration  was  marked  by  a  great  strike  at  Lawrence,  Massa 
chusetts,  that  showed  how  all  the  progress  of  the  last  gen- 


470       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

eration  had  left  the  relations  of  the  worker  to  his  employer 
still  unsatisfactory.  Organization  of  labor  in  unions  in 
creased  steadily  after  the  Civil  War.  The  greatest  of  the 
national  unions  were  the  Knights  of  Labor  (1869),  a  secret 
society  at  first;  and  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
(1881),  which  was  made  up  of  local  labor  organizations. 
These  worked  for  the  right  of  workmen  to  belong  to  unions 
and  to  strike  to  improve  their  conditions;  and  urged  upon 
Congress  and  State  legislatures  the  passage  of  laws  limit 
ing  the  hours  of  regulating  the  conditions  of  labor.  They 


A   GREAT  STEEL  PLANT 

were  hampered  in  the  work  by  the  excesses  of  the  revolu 
tionary  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World,  who  came  later 
and  taught  that  workmen  need  not  obey  the  law,  and  that 
sabotage  or  deliberate  injury  to  the  employer's  property 
was  a  proper  means  of  enforcing  their  demands.  The  strike 
at  Lawrence  brought  out  in  sharp  and  alarming  clearness 
the  revolutionary  character  of  the  radical  leaders  and  the 
need  for  an  honest  study  of  the  problems  of  labor. 

430.  "  Unscrambling  "  the  trusts.  "  Big  business  "  was 
in  as  much  trouble  as  labor  was.  The  greed  and  unscrupu- 
lousness  of  some  of  its  " captains  of  industry"  aroused  the 
fear  and  distrust  of  the  people.  President  Roosevelt,  in 
1902,  started  suit  against  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  rail- 


THE  PROGRESSIVE  PARTY  471 

road  combinations,  the  Northern  Securities  Company,  and 
succeeded  in  breaking  it  up.  Later  Government  prosecu 
tions  attacked  similarly  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  and  the  Steel 
Corporation,  as  well  as  many  lesser  trusts.  Some  of  these 
were  dissolved.  But  it  began  to  be  seen  that  punishment 
was  not  the  best  way  to  regulate  business;  that  the  bad 
•  part  of  the  trust  was  not  so  much  its  existence  as  its  evil 
behavior;  and  that  laws  to  correct  the  behavior  of  business 
concerns  ought  to  be  passed.  One  of  the  great  trust  mag 
nates  had  asked  of  the  " trust  busters":  "Can  you  un 
scramble  eggs?"  The  answer  seemed  to  be  that  the  eggs, 
or  trusts,  could  be  unscrambled,  but  that  it  was  better  to 
cook  them  right  at  first. 

431.  The  Progressive  party.  The  split  in  the  Republi 
can  party  became  wider  as  the  election  of  1912  drew  nearer. 
President  Taft  wished  to  be  renominated,  and  had  the 
support  of  the  "stand-pat"  element  in  the  party.  The 
Insurgents  opposed  his  nomination,  and  began  in  1911  to 
call  themselves  Progressive  Republicans.  They  wanted  one 
of  their  number  to  be  the  candidate.  Others  in  the  party 
feared  that  after  the  defeat  in  Congress  in  1910  neither 
Taft  nor  any  Progressive  could  be  elected,  and  accordingly 
hoped  that  ex- President  Roosevelt  could  be  induced  to  be  a 
candidate.  Roosevelt  had  gone  to  Africa  on  a  hunting-trip 
after  1909,  and  then  to  Europe  to  lecture  in  1910.  He  had 
supported  the  progressive  measures  of  the  Insurgents  after 
his  return.  People  who  opposed  him  insisted  that  no  man 
ought  to  have  a  third  term;  his  friends  said  the  objection 
was  only  to  a  third  consecutive  term.  In  February,  1912, 
he  announced  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  nomination; 
but  the  Republican  National  convention  renominated  Taft. 
Upon  this,  the  Progressive  Republicans  held  a  convention 
of  their  own,  formed  the  Progressive  party,  and  nominated 
Colonel  Roosevelt. 


472       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

X'  tariff*  arC  the  tW°  mai'n  P°sitio<ns  taken  to'day  in  regard  to  the 
thC  InSUrgentS  °f  I9I°  with  the  Bunders  of  the  Republican 


3'  noTfi6^^  ^eX^°  and  ^riz-°na  °n  the  map"     What  States  were 


4-  Compare  President  Taft's  treatment  of  Mexico  and  President  Folk's. 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

i.  Imagine  that  Thomas  Jefferson  attended  President  Taft's  inaueu- 

twlr  himWarndMre  3$?™*°"  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  be~ 

2'  Efands56  ^  imaginary  trip  with  President  Taft  to  the  Philippine 

3.  Imagine  you  were  an  American  living  in  Mexico  during  the  revolu 
tion  in  1910-11.   Tell  of  your  experiences. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 

WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  SINCE  THE 
CIVIL  WAR:  TARIFF,  TRUSTS,  AND  FINANCE:  THE  MON 
ROE  DOCTRINE 

432.  Woodrow  Wilson.    The  Republican  split  gave  the 
Democrats  their  chance.  Mr.  Bryan,  who  had  been  defeated 
three  times  (in  1896,  1900,  and  1908)  was  not  a  candidate 
himself,  but  was  able  to  prevent  the 
nomination  of  any  one  of  whom  he 
disapproved.     After  a  long  fight,  in 
which    the    friends    of    the    various 
candidates  stuck  stubbornly  to  their 
choice,    the    party    chose    Governor  i 

Woodrow  Wilson.1  Their  platform 
included  many  of  the  progressive 
measures  that  the  Insurgents  had 
wanted,  and  included  also  a  demand 

that  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff  be  re-      copvngi^vns.Moffet^ch^ago 
vised.    In  the  resulting  canvass  Mr.       WOODROW  WILSON 
Wilson    received    a    huge    majority 

electoral  vote,  because  the  Republican  vote  wras  divided.  He 
had  more  popular  votes  than  either  Roosevelt  or  Taft,  but 
had  only  a  minority  of  all.  The  Socialist  party  cast  nearly 
a  million  votes  in  this  election,  becoming  for  the  first  time 
an  important  national  party.2 

1  Woodrow  Wilson  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1856.    He  was  graduated  ^  at 
Princeton  University  in  1879;  studied  history  and  politics  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  1883-85;  practiced  law  at  Atlanta,  Georgia;  he  was  a  professor 
in  Bryn  Mawr  College,  1886-88;  in  Wesleyan  University;  in  Princeton  Uni 
versity,   1890-1902;   president  of  Princeton,   1902-10;  and  governor  of  New 
Jersey,  191 1-13;  holding  this  office  when  elected  President  of  the  United  States. 

2  The  Socialist  party  received  895,000  votes  in  this  election.    It  had  beeri 
growing  rapidly  since  the  Spanish  War,  receiving  in  1900,  94,000  votes;  in 
1904,  402,000;  in  1908,  420,000.     It  had  always  been  managed  largely  by 


474       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 


433.  Changes  in  Congress  and  the  Constitution.    Presi 
dent  Wilson  was  inaugurated  on  March  4,    1913.     A  few 
days  later  he  met  Congress,  which  he  had  called  to  revise 
the  tariff.   He  read  his  message  to  it  himself,  the  first  Presi 
dent  since  Jefferson  to  do  so.   It  had  become  the  custom  for 
Presidents  to  send  long  messages  in  writing,  but  Mr.  Wilson 
now  began  a  habit  of  making  them  brief  and  to  the  point, 

and  reading  the 
more  important 
messages  in  person . 
The  Constitution 
too  was  changing. 
There  had  been  no 
new  amendments 
since  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War, 
when  the  slavery 
amendments  were 
adopted.  Among 
the  earliest  acts  of 
Secretary  of  State 
Bryan,  in  1913,  was 
his  proclamation 
that  a  sixteenth 
amendment,  giving 
Congress  power  to 

lay  a  tax  on  incomes,  and  a  seventeenth  providing  for  the 
direct  election  of  senators,  had  been  approved  by  the  re 
quired  three  fourths  of  the  States,  and  were  in  force. 

434.  The  Changing  World,  Aircraft  and  Motors.    The 
world  that  Lincoln  knew  had  shrunk  since  the  days  of 
Washington,   and  people  then  told  themselves  that  the 
railroad  and  the  electric  telegraph  had  changed  the  face  of 
things.    Before  \Vilson  was  inaugurated  the  world  narrowed 

German-Americans,  and  after  the  outbreak  of  war  in  1917  it  placed  itself  on 
record  as  opposed  to  the  war.  Many  of  its  strongest  loyal  members,  including 
Benson,  its  presidential  nominee  in  1916,  resigned  from  it  after  this,  and  the 
influence  of  the  party  was  weakened. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  HALL  OF 
REPRESENTATIVES 

Showing  the  new  arrangement  of  seats.  In  the  old  arrangement 
each  representative  had  his  private  desk.  Members  now  do 
their  personal  business  in  their  offices  in  the  Senate  and  House 
office  buildings 


MODERN   INVENTIONS 


475 


still  more.1  The  amount  of  work  that  one  man  could  do 
was  multiplied.2  The  reaper,  that  Cyrus  McCormick  had 
begun  to  make  before  the  Civil 
War,  had  brought  the  great 
West  under  cultivation.  The 
sewing-machine  of  Howe,  and 
the  shoe-machine  of  McKay, 
had  made  new  industries  pos 
sible.  The  telephone  of  Bell 
was  patented  in  1876,  and 
made  instant  communication 
possible  in  the  country  as  well 
as  in  the  towns.  The  electric 
light  as  well  as  the  electric 
street  car  and  the  bicycle  came 
along  in  the  eighties,  and  in 
the  nineties  inventors  began 
to  experiment  with  ' '  horse 
less  carriages,"  or  motor  cars.3 
These,  convenient,  cheap,  and 
reliable,  multiplied  by  millions 
before  1913,  and  the  gas-engine 

1  Commander   Robert   E.  Peary  dis 
covered  the  North  Pole  on  April  6,  1909. 
For  three  hundred  years  courageous  ex 
plorers'  had  tried  to  push  across  the  great 
waste  region  of  ice  and  snow  to  reach 
that  goal.    Peary  had  been  working  at  it 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century.    His  achieve 
ment  was  rewarded  by  Congress,  which 
made  him  a  Rear  Admiral,  and  by  learned 
societies  all  over  the  world  that  granted 

him  medals  and  diplomas.   Admiral  Peary  has  of  late  years  led  in  the  campaign 
for  the  development  of  the  American  air-plane  service. 

On  December  14,  1911,  Captain  Roald  Amundsen,  of  Norway,  reached  th& 
South  Pole.   Nearly  the  whole  world  is  now  known  to  its  inhabitants. 

2  In  September,  1909,  New  York  celebrated  the  one  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  navigation  of  the  Hudson  River  by  Fulton's  steamboat,  as  well  as  the 
three  hundredth  anniversary  of  Henry  Hudson,  the  discoverer  of  the  river. 

3  The  first  automobile  show  in  America  was    held  in  New  York  in  1900. 
To-day  the  millions  of  motor-cars  in  use  make  possible  living  in  the  suburbs, 
caking  easy  pleasure  trips,  and  extend  the  limit  of  business  in  every  direction. 
Some  of  the  factories  can  make  as  many  as  half  a  million  cars  in  a  single  year. 


Photograph  by  Brown  Brothers 

COMMANDER   PEARY 

Who  discovered  the  North  Pole 


476      THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

that  drove  them  was  modified  so  as  to  drive  airships.  The 
successful  airplanes  of  the  Wright  brothers  gave  the  United 
States  another  great  invention,1  about  1905 ;  and  in  less  than 
five  years  more  a  daring  Frenchman  had  flown  across  the 
English  Channel  from  France  to  England.  An  Italian,  Mar 
coni,  added  wire 
less     telegraphy, 
and     Americans, 
Simon  Lake  and 
J.P.Holland,  built 
submarine  ships. 
435.  Social  pro 
gress.    The  great 
inventions,     and 
the  prosperity  of 
America  brought 
about  the  growth 
of     large     cities, 
most  of  whose  in 
habitants  were  engaged  in  work  at  the  various  industries, 
and  many  of  whom  were  poor.    City  government  had  not 
improved  in  quality  with  the  growth  of  the  cities,  and  re 
forms  in  housing,  lighting,  sewage,  water-supply,  and  edu 
cation  engaged  the  attention  of  public-spirited  people.    In 
some  years  more  than  a  million  immigrants  had  come  to 
the  United  States,  drawn  by  our  free  institutions,  and  by 
the  better  chances  for  themselves  and  their  children  that 
existed  here.    Because  these  could  speak  little  English  they 
were  easily  imposed  upon.    Some  of  their  selfish  leaders 
even  tried  to  keep  alive  their  old  language  at  school,  at 

i  In  the  year  1900  the  Wright  brothers,  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  began  air-glid 
ing.  In  1903  they  added  a  gasoline  engine  to  their  glider  and  thus  converted 
it  into  a  heavier-than-air  flying-machine;  but  it  was  not  until  1908  that  they 
were  ready  to  make  exhibition  flights.  Other  adventurous  inventors  were 
experimenting  ^with  dirigible  balloons.  Airplanes  are  now  used  by  all  the 
armies.  The  United  States  designed  in  1917  a  new  high  power  engine  for  its 
war  airplane,  known  as  the  Liberty  Motor.  An  airplane  mail  service  between 
New  /ork  and  Washington  and  later  between  New  York  and  Boston  was 
started  in  1918. 


A  WRIGHT  BIPLANE 

Compare  with  the  war-balloon,  page  371 


SOCIAL  PROGRESS  477 

church,  and  in  their  newspapers.  To  help  them,  in  the 
crowded  slums  where  many  of  them  lived,  settlements  had 
been  opened.  Jane  Addams  founded  Hull  House  in  Chicago 
in  1889,  and  similar  centers  of  Americanism  multiplied. 
Schools  began  to  give  manual  training.  High  schools  and 
colleges  flourished,  so  that  by  1913  there  was  no  country 
in  the  world  where  ordinary  people  had  so  good  a  start 
toward  success  in  life.  Drunkenness,  which  had  always 


A  MODERN   LOCOMOTIVE 

Length,  120  feet ;  weight,  425  tons.  This  is  one  of  the  oil-burning  freight  locomotives  built  by  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Kailroad.  Compare  with  the  earliest  locomotives,  page  266 

been  the  plague  of  the  poor,  was  decreasing.  State  after 
State,  and  county  after  county  under  local  option,  were 
adopting  prohibition.  In  1917  Congress  adopted  a  national 
amendment  for  prohibition,  and  sent  it  out  to  the  States 
for  ratification. 

436.  What  the  people  thought.  The  religion,  literature, 
and  pleasures  of  the  people  show  what  they  really  are.  The 
United  States,  with  91,972,266  inhabitants  in  1910  (see 
table,  appendix,  page  xx),  was  simple  and  clean  in  its 
amusements,  and  had  ideals  that  it  was  not  ashamed  to 
show.  President  Roosevelt's  demand  for  a  "square  deal" 
for  every  one  expressed  the  desire  of  a  nation  that  loved 
clean  sport  and  hated  a  cheat.  The  great  churches  that  were 
being  built,  from  the  massive  cathedrals  in  New  York,  to 
humble  missions  in  little  towns,  measured  an  interest  in 
things  of  the  spirit  that  prosperity  had  not  lessened.  Cheap 
and  good  magazines,  and  newspapers  that  were  nearly  as 
good,  provided  literature  for  the  millions,  less  artistic  than 
the  best,  but  so  far  above  the  ordinary  that  most  of  its  read 
ers  profited  by  it.  The  day  of  Longfellow  and  Lowell,  Haw- 


478       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

thorne  and  Cooper,  had  changed  into  a  new  day  of  Clemens 
(Mark  Twain)  and  Ho  wells  and  O.  Henry.  Throughout  the 
literature  and  religion  ran  unceasingly  the  old  American 
Meals  of  real  democracy.  Even  the  moving  pictures,  which 
had  become  more  popular  than  the  theater  had  ever  been, 
expressed  these  same  notions  of  democracy,  and  their  reels 
spread  into  every  section  of  the  nation  the  views  and  ideas 
of  all  the  rest. 


Full  Suffi 

ary  Suffrage 

KX?^3  Presidential  Suffrage 
icipal  Suffrage 


unicipal  Suffrage 

Municipal  Suffrage  in.  Charter  Cities 
FvVvTI  School  Bond  or  Tax 
I         \No  Suffrage  for  Women 


WOMAN   SUFFRAGE  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES 

437.  Shall  women  vote?  New  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
children,  and  foreign  immigrants,  and  the  poor,  extended 
also  to  women  who  were  at  work.  Factory  laws,  to  protect 
them  from  injury  and  disease,  and  liability  laws,  to  ensure 
them  proper  treatment  when  injured  while  at  work,  were 
passed  by  many  States.  These  laws  helped  raise  the  ques 
tion  of  the  vote.  When  the  United  States  began  not  even  all 
men  could  vote.  But  every  time  a  new  State  was  made  in 
the  West  the  limitations  were  removed,  By  the  end  of  the 
century  religious  tests  and  property  tests  had  entirely  disap 
peared,  and  all  American  men  of  twenty-one  had  gained 


WOMAN  SUFFRAGE  479 

the  right  to  vote.  In  Colorado,  Utah,  Wyoming,  and  Idaho 
the  women  had  received  the  same  right.  Some  of  them  had 
been  asking  for  it  for  a  long  time  in  other  States,  and  about 
1905  the  demand  was  made  again,  every  year  with  greater 
force.  Most  of  the  Progressives,  and  many  Republicans  and 
Democrats  supported  the  movement  for  woman  suffrage. 
Other  Western  States  granted  it  to  them,  until  by  1918 
women  could  vote  for  President  in  eighteen  States,  and 
President  Wilson  had  urged  Congress  to  pass  a  new  amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution,  extending  the  right  over  the  whole 
country. 

438.  The  Underwood  tariff.    Tariff  reduction  was  the 
first  thing  the  Democrats  had  promised  to  bring  about. 
Under  President  Wilson's  leadership,   and  at  his   actual 
direction,  Congress  passed  a  new  law  in  1913.    This  law 
increased  the  number  of  articles  that  could  be  imported 
without  paying  a  duty,  and  included  a  tax  upon  incomes 
which  had  been  authorized  by  the  sixteenth  amendment. 
There  is  no  fairer  way  of  taxing  than  to  make  each  citizen 
contribute  to  the  support  of  the  Government  according  to 
his  earnings  or  income.    Most  other  countries  had  adopted 
income  taxes  before  we  did. 

439.  The  federal  reserve  banks.    Congress  next  set  to 
work  upon  the  banking  system.    It  is  the  business  of  banks 
to  take  care  of  money  deposited  by  them,  and  to  lend  money 
or  credit  to  people  who  are  known  to  be  honest  and  reliable. 
All  men  in  business  have  to  borrow  from  the  banks;  and  if 
the  supply  of  money  to  be  loaned  them  gives  out,  there 
may  be  a  financial  panic.    Sometimes  this  supply  gives  out 
in  one  State  when  there  is  plenty  of  money  in  the  next 
State,  but  we  had  never  had  a  banking  system  that  was 
flexible,  or  able  quickly  to  shift  credit  to  the  places  where  it 
was  needed  most.    The  great  panic  of  1893,  and  a  smaller 
panic  in  1907,  showed  how  great  was  the  need  for  financial 
reform.    Under  the  new  federal  reserve  system,  adopted  in 
1913,  the  country  is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  in  each 
of  which  there  is  a  federal  reserve  bank,  with  which  all  the 


480       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

local  banks  may  have  business  dealings.  And  through  these 
reserve  banks  our  money  and  credit  have  been  made  flexible 
enough  to  meet  our  needs. 

440.  The  trusts  and  the  Federal  Trade  Commission.  The 
trusts  are  great  business  concerns  that  are  able  to  control 
the  prices  of  the  things  they  sell,  and  are  sometimes  able 
to  bribe  members  of  legislatures  in  order   to  get  special 
favors  for  themselves.     Their  existence  had  been  noticed 
for  thirty  years ;  but  no  one  knew  just  what  to  do  with  them. 
The  Progressives  had  demanded  trust  control  in  1912,  and 
every  one  approved  when  Congress  passed  in  1914  a  new 
law  forbidding  unfair  practices  in  business,  and  another 
creating  a  Federal  Trade  Commission  to  study  and  control 
big  business.    With  the  tariff  reduced,  and  the  banks  reor 
ganized,  and  the  trusts  curbed,  it  seemed  by  the  summer  of 
1914  as  if  the  people  of  the  United  States  might  hope  for  a 
long  period  of  peace,  happiness,  and  prosperity. 

441.  The  new  Monroe  Doctrine.    Mexico  was  still  dis 
turbed  by  her  revolution,  and  General  Huerta  was  unable 
to  restore  order;  and  injury  to  American  property  in  Mex 
ico,  or  to  Americans  along  the  border  in  Texas,  was  great. 
Some  Americans  thought  the  United  States  ought  to  inter 
vene  in  Mexico  with  an  army,  restore  order,  and  ''clean  up " 
the  country.   Many  of  the  people  in  Mexico  feared  that  the 
United  States  would  take  advantage  of  her  trouble  and  use 
the  superior  strength  of  a  great  nation  to  conquer  her.    To 
reassure  these,  the  President  announced  in  1913  that  "the 
United  States  will  never  again  seek  one   additional   foot 
of  territory  by  conquest."   And  he  insisted  that  Mexico 
must  be  allowed  to  solve  her  own  problems  without  inter 
ference.    In  1914  and  again  in  1916  there  were  invasions  of 
Mexico  by  the  United  States,  but  only  for  the  purpose  of 
protection;  and  the  troops  concerned  were  soon  withdrawn. 
This  course  gave  a  new  appearance  to  the  famous  Monroe 
Doctrine  (see  page  261),  and  indicated  that  the  United 
States  would  not  claim  for  itself  things  that  it  forbade  Eu- 
pean  countries  to  try  to  do.    It  meant  that  the  American 
republics  were  safe  from  conquest. 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


481 


442.  The  Panama  Canal  and  the  Exposition.  The  ap 
proaching  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  gave  new  im 
portance  to  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and  its 
neighbors.  President  Wilson  insisted  that  the  canal  must 
be  opened  on  equal 
terms  to  all.  In 
1914  it  was  an 
nounced  that  the 
great  locks  were 
done,  the  cuts  were 
dug,  and  on  August 
15  the  canal  was 
to  be  opened  to  the 
world.  In  celebra 
tion  of  this  a  great 
world's  fair  was 
held  in  San  Fran 
cisco,  in  1915,  and 
the  President  prom 
ised  to  go  himself, 
and  to  let  the  pro 
cession  of  battleships  be  headed  by  the  old  Oregon  whose 
gallant  voyage  around  South  America  in  1 898  had  shown 
the  real  need  of  the  canal.  But  he  could  not  keep  the  prom 
ise,  for  before  1914  was  over  the  prosperity,  the  ideals,  and 
even  the  existence  of  our  country  were  at  stake. 


THE  GATUN  LOCKS,  PANAMA  CANAL 

By  means  of  a  system  of  great  locks  the  largest  ships  are  raised 
or  lowered  over  the  hills  of  the  Isthmus.  The  ships  are  drawn 
through  the  locks  by  electric  locomotives  that  run  on  tracks 
along  the  side  of  the  locks. 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  a  federal  reserve  banknote  a  secure  form  of  money?    Com 
pare  with  a  silver  certificate. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  five  trusts. 

3.  Has  your  State  an  income  tax?  What  amounts  of  income  are  exempt 
under  the  United  States  income  tax? 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Write  a  letter  telling  of  your  visit  to  Washington,  D.C. 

2.  Describe  a  trip  to  the  San  Francisco  Exposition. 

3.  Describe  a  trip  in  a  submarine;  in  an  airplane. 

4.  Do  you  think  women  ought  to  be  allowed  to  vote?   Why? 


CHAPTER  XLIX 

WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  THE  WORLD  WAR:  THE  EURO 
PEAN  SYSTEM  AND  OURS:  PROBLEMS  OF  NEUTRALITY: 
GERMAN  INTRIGUE 

443.  The  European  system  and  ours.  The  growth  of  the 
United  States  in  wealth,  and  its  peaceful  relations  with  all 
the  world,  made  a  sharp  contrast  with  affairs  in  Europe 
where  nations  were  constantly  on  their  guard  against  each 
other.  After  the  wars  in  which  Napoleon  tried  to  conquer 
Europe,  ending  in  his  defeat  at  Waterloo  in  1815,  various 
nations  kept  great  armies  constantly  ready  for  defense  or 
attack.  England,  on  an  island,  and  with  her  "wooden 
walls"  around  her,  had  not  done  this,  nor  had  the  little 
nations.  Belgium,  indeed,  and  Luxemburg,  were  promised 
by  solemn  treaties  that  they  should  not  be  attacked.  But 
the  great  powers  maintained  large  armies,  and  even 
adopted  the  principle  of  compulsory  military  training. 
They  forced  every  man  to  spend  a  certain  time  in  the  army, 
and  then,  when  his  service  was  done  to  go  into  the  reserve, 
oubject  to  be  called  back  into  active  service  if  needed. 

444.  Prussia.  There  was  a  long  peace  after  Napoleon's 
downfall,  and  western  Europe  saw  no  great  war  until  1864. 
Then  Prussia  and  Austria  robbed  Denmark  of  her  rich 
provinces  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  and  in  1866  Prussia 
took  from  Austria  the  spoils  of  this  earlier  attack.  In  1870 
the  rivalry  of  Germany  and  France  produced  an  attack  by 
Prussia  under  her  great  builder  Bismarck,  with  the  result 
that  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  torn  from  France.  There- 
.after  France  kept  her  armies  for  protection,  and  in  the  hope 
of  regaining  her  lost  provinces.  Prussia,  organizing  the  Ger 
man  Empire  about  herself,  made  war  her  glory  and  am 
bition  her  desire.  In  the  race  for  leadership  among  nations, 
fear  of  Prussia  and  ambition  in  Prussia  were  the  leading 


PRUSSIAN  AMBITION  483 

motives.   There  were  no  unarmed  borders  like  those  of  the 
United  States. 

445.  "  Der  Tag."    The  professional  soldiers  of  Germany 
looked  to  the  day  when  Germany  should  rule  Europe,  if  not 
the  whole  world.     They  allied  themselves  with  Italy  and 
Austria  for  the  former  purpose;  the  British  navy  stood 
between  them  and  the  latter.    And  so  the  young  Kaiser 
William  II,  who  began  his  rule  in  1888,  dug  a  canal  from 
Kiel  on  the  Baltic  to  the  North  Sea,  and  built  a  great 
modern  navy  to  use  it ;  while  the  officers  in  his  army  and 
on  his  ships  drank  toasts  to  "  Der  Tag"   -the  day  —  when 
they  should  meet  England  and  sweep  away  her  strength. 
No  country  in  the  world  lacked  some  imperialists,  —  men 
who  wanted  to  gain  national  power  at  the  expense  of  weak 
and  inoffensive   neighbors,  —  but  only  Germany  allowed 
them  to  rule  unchecked.    The  threat  of  possible  war  hung 
low  over  Europe  after  1900.    Once  or  twice  it  seemed  as  if 
it  must  fall.    But  the  "  dreadnaught "  battleships,  first  built 
in  1905,  were  so  large  that  the  Kiel  Canal  had  to  be  en 
larged  to  carry  them,  and  until   this  was  done  Germany 
could  not  afford  to  go  to  war. 

446.  The  attack  on  Servia.    The  new  Kiel  Canal  was 
opened  July  i,  1914.  Three  days  earlier  the  assassination  of 
the  heir  to  the  Austro-Hungarian  throne  gave  a  pretext 
for  a  war.    A  Servian  had  done  the  murder.    Servia  stood 
in  the  road  of  Austria.    On  July  5  there   seems  to   have 
been  a  conference  in   Potsdam,   at  which  Germany  and 
Austria  agreed  that  "Der  Tag"  had  come.    On  July  28 
Austria  started  war  on  Servia,   Russia   came  to  the  de 
fense  of  Servia  at  once,  and  Germany  invaded  Belgium 
and  France  to  prevent  France  from  aiding  Russia.    The 
invasion  of  Belgium,  in  spite  of  the  solemn  agreement  that 
she  should  be  left  neutral,  brought  England  into  the  war. 
The  flames  of  warfare  that  had  smouldered  for  a  genera 
tion  broke  into  wild  conflagration.1 

1  Germany  and  her  allies,   Austria-Hungary,   Bulgaria,  and  Turkey,  be 
came  known  as  the  Central  Powers,  because  of  their  location  in  central  Eu- 


484       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

447.  Neutrality.    The  United  States  looked  on  aghast. 
Every  nation  in  the  war  had  sent  of  its  sons  to  America,  and 
these  naturally  hoped  and  believed  that  the  fatherland  or 
motherland  was  right.      President  Wilson  proclaimed  at 
once  that  the  United  States  would  remain  neutral  in  the 
war,  and  allowed  American  ministers  abroad  to  do  friendly 
services  for  all  the  countries.    Few  dreamed  that  it  could 
affect  the  United  States  or  that  the  war  was  really  a  be 
ginning  of  a  test  of  strength  between  autocratic  monarchies 
and  the  principle  of  free  government,   under  which  the 
people  rule. 

448.  Belgium.    But  as  the  news  from  Belgium  reached 
America,  people  began  to  see  that  the  nation  responsible 

for  what  was  happening  there  could 
^jSjftjjL  n°t  possibly  be   right.    Belgium  was 

*%  attacked  in   cold    blood,  in    spite    of 

"*  m     *a&    treaties  written  for  the  special  purpose 
-M      I    of  defending  her,  and  signed  by  Ger 
many.   Old  men  and  women  were  shot 
d|  ?  Hv     in  the  streets  of  the  Belgian  towns. 

•n  ^m  Children  were  murdered.  Houses  were 
burned.  Able-bodied  men  and  women 
were  carried  away  into  slavery  in  Ger- 

Copyright  by  Harris  and  Ewmg  •* 

HERBERT  c.  HOOVER     man7;   ,And  the  unoffending  Belgians 

who  organized  the  relief  of  Bei-     would   have  starved  had  not  Ameri- 

SS^aS^^oS.1"1-     cans,  led  by  Herbert  C.  Hoover,  formed 

a  society  to  raise  money  and  to  feed 

the  starving.  As  Americans  saw  these  things  a  wide  opinion 
formed  that  Germany  had  produced  the  war,  and  her  con 
duct  was  a  danger  to  the  world.  The  Government  re 
mained  neutral,  but  private  opinion  made  up  its  own  mind. 

rope.  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France  were  the  Allies,  or  the  Entente  Allies. 
Entente  is  a  French  word  meaning  understanding;  there  had  been  an  under 
standing  or  informal  agreement  among  these  countries  as  to  how  they  should 
protect  themselves  if  Germany  declared  war.  They  were- joined  in  1914  by 
Belgium,  Serbia,  Montenegro,  and  Japan;  in  1915  by  Italy  and  San  Marino; 
in  1916  by  Portugal  and  Roumania;  in  1917  by  Bolivia,  Brazil.  China,  Cuba, 
Greece,  Liberia,  Panama,  Siam,  and  the  United' States;  in  1918  by  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Nicaragua,  and  Honduras. 


THE  LESSON  OF  BELGIUM  485 

449.  The  future  of  peace.    American  opinion  was  horri 
fied  at  the  sufferings  of  little  Belgium,  anli  admiral  the 
courage  with  which  it  refused  to  yield  to  the  ihvadfer,  and 
by  its  resistance  gave  England  and  •Trance'  tjifce*  ta*  form 
their  lines  and  save  Paris.    But  behind  it  all  was  the  ques 
tion,  —  Belgium  had  been  guarded  by  a  general  treaty, 
and  the  treaty  had  failed  to  save  her:  could  the  United 
States  or  any  other  peaceful  nation  continue  -to  rely  on 
promises  and  good  will?     In  the  first  year  of  the  war  ex- 
President  Taft,  and  James  Bryce,  and  other  distinguished 
leaders  of  England  and  America  worked  out  a  scheme  for  a 
league  of  nations  to  enforce  peace  and  to  prevent  another 
war  from  following  this  one.      Convictions  deepened   in 
Great  Britain  and  France  that  this  war  must  be  the  last, 
and  that  never  again  must  it  be  possible  for  a  warlike  and 
unscrupulous  nation  to  pick  its  time  and  try  to  rob  its 
neighbors.     People  began   at   last   to   read  what  German 
writers  had  been  discussing  for  many  years  about  German 
conquest  and  expansion,  the  scheme  for  "Central  Europe," 
and  the  railroad  from  Berlin  to  Bagdad. 

450.  American  defense.    The  more  Americans  directed 
their  thoughts  to  the  lesson  of  Belgium  the  more  clearly 
they  saw  that  the  United  States  was  running  a  great  risk 
on  the  chance  of  peace.    There  were  no  forces  to  be  relied 
upon  in  case  America  should  be  invaded.    If   the  navy 
should  be  overpowered  by  an  enemy  there  were  some  forts 
along  the  coasts,  but  these  were  not  greater  than  those  that 
Germany  had  destroyed  in  her  attack  upon  Belgium.   There 
was  a  small  regular  army,  brave  and  well  organized,  but 
not  large  enough  to  defend  even  a  single  Atlantic  seaport. 
The  militia  of  the  States  was  not  uniformly  efficient.   And 
the  new  war  was  so  gigantic  that  few  could  say  how  and 
where  the  United  States  must  begin  in  order  to  prepare. 
"  Preparedness  "  became  a  subject  of  discussion  in  1914  and 
increased  in  interest  as  every  few  months  revealed  a  new 
horror  of  the  war. 

451.  Machinery  of  modern  war.    New  tools  and  new 


BERLIN  TO  BAGDAD  RAILWAY 
AND 


STRATEGIC  CONNECTIONS 
JAN.  1918 

'Middle 'Europe"  and  itsTlnnexes 
ESS  The  Entente  Powers 
E^Vjl  Territory  occupied^by  Central  Powers 
ISgl  Territory  occupied'by  Entente  Powers 
OEBMANY.'S  MAIN  ROUTE  TO  EAST 
•••  (Berlin-Bagdad,  Berlin-Hodeida,  Berlin-Cairo-Cap«jx 
p**+  Supplementary  Routes 
•  •  Uncompleted  sectors 


THE  SUBMARINES  487 

methods  were  used  from  the  start.  Great  cannon,  of  which 
the  rest  of  Europe  had  been  unaware,  were  brought  out 
by  Germany  to  blow  to  fragments  the  steel  and  concrete 
forts  of  Belgium  and  France.  Airplanes  flew  over  the  line 
of  battle  to  inspect  the  enemy's  country,  to  drop  bombs,  and 
to  shoot  with  machine  guns.  Machine  guns  seemed  to  be 
more  numerous  than  rifles.  Instead  of  fighting  in  the  open, 
both  armies  dug  deep  trenches  from  which  they  fought. 
In  April,  1915,  the  German  army  sprung  a  complete  surprise 
by  letting  loose  a  wave  of  poison  gas  (chlorine)  to  stifle  the 
English,  and  gas  warfare  became  a  new  terror.  The  next 
summer  the  British  invented  the  "tank,"  a  heavily  armored 
motor-car,  that  could  advance  over  trenches  and  through 
walls  and  houses,  and  that  cut  to  pieces  the  barbed  wire 
network  with  which  the  trenches  were  guarded.  The  war 
was  one  of  machinery  and  inventors;  with  a  magnitude 
beyond  anything  Americans  could  yet  conceive. 

452.  The  submarine  as  a  weapon.   The  airplane  and  the 
submarine  were  the  most  striking  of  the  new  weapons.    In 
September,  1914,  a  German  submarine  destroyed  with  tor 
pedoes  three  British  cruisers  on  one  day,  and  raised  the 
question  of  the  value  of  certain  types  of  modern  ships.   The 
German  navy  had  mostly  remained  at  home  in  safety,  leav 
ing  the  British  fleet  in  control  of  the  oceans.    But  von 
Tirpitz,  head  of  the  German  navy,  was  determined  to  use 
the  submarine  to  terrorize  Great  Britain  if  he  could,  and 
in  February,  1915,  it  was  announced  that  British  merchant 
men  would  be  sunk  in  the  waters  around  the  British  Isles. 

453.  Blockades  and  neutrals.  The  United  States  and  the 
other  neutral  countries  had  of  course  been  inconvenienced 
by  the  Great  War.     Their  commerce  had  been  interfered 
with.     Each  of  the  warring  powers  tried  to  stop  supplies 
to  its  enemy,  and  neutrals  suffered.   The  law  of  nations  per 
mits  neutrals  to  trade  with  countries  at  war,  but  allows 
the  fighting  nations — the  belligerents — (i)  to  stop  contra 
band  of  war,  such  as  weapons,  ammunition,  and  materials 
for  making  them,    bound    for   the   enemy,   (2)    to   search 


488       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

neutral  vessels  to  see  if  they  are  carrying  aid  to  the  enemy, 
and  (3)  to  declare  a  blockade  of  the  enemy  coast  and  seize 
any  vessel  trying  to  pass  through  the  blockade.  The  block 
ade  must  be  real  and  thorough,  such  as  the  United  States 
stretched  around  the  Confederacy,  but  all  powers  recognize 
its  legality.  Since  Great  Britain  kept  the  German  fleet  at 
home,  it  was  England,  and  only  England  that  interfered 
with  neutral  trade.  Often  we  felt  that  the  interference  was 
unfair,  but  the  search  and  seizures  were  carried  on  with 
directness  and  care,  no  lives  were  lost,  and  all  claims  for 
unjust  treatment  were  given  prompt  attention.  What 
grievances  there  were  because  the  Allies'  practice  of  the 

laws  of  wrar  were 
inconvenient,  were 
soon  silenced  by  the 
great  outrage  in 
flicted  by  Germany. 
454.  The  Lusi- 
tania.  The  German 
submarine  blockade 
of  England  began 
in  February,  1915. 
President  Wilson 

protested  against  it  immediately,  calling  attention  to  the 
fact  that  no  submarine  could  observe  the  accepted  laws  of 
war.  It  could  not  safeguard  the  lives  of  passengers  on  mer 
chant  ships,  it  could  not  carry  out  the  search,  it  could 
not  spare  prize  crews  to  take  captured  vessels  to  port.  He 
warned  Germany  that  she  would  be  held  to  "strict  account 
ability"  if  any  lives  were  taken  as  result  of  this  new  variety 
of  naval  warfare.  On  May  7  the  German  threat  was  car 
ried  out  in  all  completeness.  The  great  liner  Lusitania, 
one'of  the  fastest  and  finest  ships  afloat,  was  torpedoed  and 
sunk  without  warning  while  on  a  voyage  from  the  United 
States  to  England,  and  more  than  a  thousand  innocent 
men,  women,  and  children  were  drowned.  Among  these 
were  114  American  citizens  whose  lives  were  thus  taken  by 


THE  LUSITANIA 


PREPAREDNESS  489 

Germany,  which  was  professing  to  be  at  peace  with  the 
United  States,  and  whose  subjects,  by  millions,  had  sought 
in  America  a  happiness  and  prosperity  denied  them  at 
home.  A  wave  of  horror  swept  around  the  world,  and  most 
real  Americans  who  had  not  been  convinced  upon  the 
merits  of  the  war  by  the  destruction  of  Belgium,  now  saw 
Germany  in  a  new  and  ghastly  light. 

455.  Preparedness.    The  indignant  protest  against  the 
murder  of  the  Americans  on  the  Lusitania  w^as  met  with 
falsehood  and  evasion.     First  it  was  falsely  asserted  that 
the  Lusitania  was  secretly  armed ;  then  it  was  claimed  that 
Germany  had  a  right  to  retaliate  upon  England  even  though 
retaliation  involved  the  rights  and  lives  of  neutrals.     To 
all  of  this  the  President  replied  with  the  demand  that 
such  conduct  cease;  he  began  to  see,  as  his  country  began  to 
see,  that  the  war  had  become  universal  and  that  upon  its 
outcome  depended  the  future  of  the  world.    There  was  just 
a  chance  that  Germany  would  check  her  course  short  of 
forcing  the  United  States  to  war.    But  in  order  to  be  ready 
for  what  might  come,  on  the  day  that  the  last  note  was 
written  about  the  Lusitania  President  Wilson  called  upon 
his  secretaries  of  war  and  the  navy  for  advice  upon  pre 
paredness.     It  was  not  to  be  moderate  preparedness  but 
complete;    the  kind  of  preparedness  that  would  permit  the 
country  if.it  must,  to  bring  its  whole  power  into  the  war  for 
its  defense. 

456.  The  navy  stands  ready.  The  navy,  always  the  first 
line  of  American  defense,  was  ready  for  action.     It  is  im 
possible  to  build  warships  quickly,  and  therefore  the  naval 
strength  of  a  country  cannot  be  greatly  increased  after  the 
outbreak  of  a  war,  unless  the  war  is  prolonged.    Our  navy 
had  been  watched  and  loved  even  in  time  of  peace.    The 
voyage  around  the  world  (see  p.  458)  had  shown  the  skill  of 
its  officers  and  men,  and  many  new  battleships  had  been 
added  since  1909.  Admiral  Dewey,  who  had  been  its  chief 
officer  since  his  promotion  after  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay, 
assured  the  people  that  the  navy  was  ready  for  instant  serv- 


490       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

ice.  Under  wise  administration  it  had  become  a  training- 
school  for  character,  and  its  enlisted  men  were  more  numer 
ous  than  ever  before.  In  1915  Congress  created  the  new 
office  of  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  to  make  it  easier  to  use 
the  navy  as  a  fighting  machine.  The  next  summer,  as  a  result 
of  the  President's  demand  for  great  preparedness,  the  largest 
single  appropriation  ever  made  was  voted  by  Congress  for 
new  ships  and  equipment.  The  President  was  resolved 
to  keep  the  peace  if  he  could,,  but  to  be  ready  if  war  must 
come. 

457.  The  National  Defense  Act.   The  navy  required  only 
an  increase  of  men  and  ships ;  the  army  called  for  complete 
change  of  method  and  organization.    In  every  earlier  war  we 
had  relied  chiefly  upon  volunteer  soldiers,  and  we  had  never 
learned  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  meet  a  real  enemy 
with  these,  for  never  had  we  faced  a  modern,  well-organized 
enemy.  In  the  Civil  War  both  sides  lost  two  years  in  training 
men  and  leaders;  in  the  Spanish  War  we  tried  to  raise  an 
army  quickly,  only  to  see  men  die  by  thousands  of  unneces 
sary  disease  because  their  officers  did  not  know  how  to 
protect  them.  Since  the  Spanish  War  much  had  been  learned. 
The  medical  corps  had  learned  how  to  prevent  yellow  fever. 
Typhoid  fever,  malaria,  and  diphtheria  had  ceased  to  be 
dangerous,  if  properly  watched.    In  Roosevelt's  administra 
tion  a  General  Staff  had  been  created  to  direct  the  army,  and 
to  make  plans  for  its  development.   In  1916,  under  the  pres 
sure  for  preparedness  the  National  Defense  Act  was  passed, 
carrying  an  increase  in  the  regular  army,  a  new  arrangement 
for  the  militia,  or  national  guard,  and,  most  important,  a 
provision  for  training  young  officers.   It  takes  fifty  thousand 
officers  to  command  a  million  men ;  to  train  these  a  system 
of  camps  and  a  course  of  study  were  provided;  the  evils 
resulting  from  untrained  volunteer  officers  were  to  be  avoided 
in  the  next  war,  and  professional  soldiers  were  to  direct  the 
work. 

458.  Intrigue  and  sedition.   Germany  watched  with  fear 
the  change  in  American  opinion,    the  growing  hostility 


INTRIGUE  AND  SEDITION  49* 

among  the  American  people,  and  the  new  willingness  to 
make  sacrifices  for  a  real  preparedness.  For  many  years  she 
had  believed  that  the  millions  of  former  Germans  in  the 
United  States  would  prevent  any  interference  with  her  plans 
from  us.  She  had  encouraged  such  organizations  as  the 
German-American  National  Alliance  to  keep  up  the  use 
of  the  German  language,  and  their  leaders  to  talk  about  the 
virtues  of  German  kultur.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
her  agents  in  America  began  to  hire  men  to  blow  up  bridges 
in  Canada,  to  destroy  factories  in  America  making  guns 
and  ammunition,  and  to  incite  workmen  to  strike  in  such 
factories.  These  things  were  proved  in  courts  of  law. 

459.  Mexico.    It  was  also  whispered  that  Germans  in 
America  would    be   armed   to   raise   revolt  if  the  United 
States  interfered.     In  Mexico  she  tried  to  spread  distrust 
of  the  United  States;  so  also  in  South  America.    Her  am 
bassador  in  Washington,  Count  von  Bernstorff,  talked  of 
using  money  to   influence  Congress  itself.    Many  of  the 
citizens  whom  she  used  for  these  criminal  purposes  were 
only  ignorant;  a  few  were  willing  to  turn  traitor  to  the 
land  that  had  held  open  to  them  the  door  of  opportunity. 
During    1915    and    1916    intrigue   and   sedition   ran   high 
among  ' '  hyphenated ' '  Americans  —  those  whose  love  was 
for  another  country  than  their  own. 

460.  Villa  on  the  border.    In  the  midst  of  all  the  great 
preparations  for  defense,  Mexico  continued  in  a  state  of 
revolution.    Huerta  had  been  driven  out  of  power  in  1914; 
after  him  Carranza  gained  the  power,  and  Villa  contested 
for  it.      Damage  and  destruction  of  American  lives  and 
property   continued.    German    intrigue    among    Mexicans 
and  other  Spanish- Americans  had  spread  so  much  distrust 
of  the  United  States  that  an  attempt  to  help  Mexico  might 
have  been  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  conquest.   So  Presi 
dent  Wilson  continued  his  policy  of  patient  self-restraint, 
or  " watchful  waiting"   hoping  that   Mexico  would  save 
herself.    In  the  spring  of  1916  he  sent  an  army  into  north 
ern  Mexico  to  suppress  the  bandit  Villa,  but  brought  it 


492       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

back  home  the  following  winter.  All  the  time  Germany  is 
now  known  to  have  been  conspiring  to  provoke  war  there, 
either  to  tie  the  hands  of  the  United  States  or  to  arouse 
suspicion  of  American  motives.  Early  in  1917  she  offered 
to  help  Mexico  conquer  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona 
in  the  event  of  war. 

461.  The  Sussex.    While  President  Wilson  was  watch 
fully  waiting  for  peace  in  Mexico,  he  was  patiently  hoping 
that  Germany  would  refrain  from  forcing  us  to  war.    After 
sinking    of    the    Lusitania,    the    submarines    avoided    the 
drowning  of  Americans,  and  in  the  fall  of  1915  there  was 
room   for   hope    that   the   wiser   counsels    would   prevail. 
But  in  1916  the  Sussex  was  sunk  without  warning  in  the 
English  Channel,  and  the  President  declared  at  once  that 
unless  Germany  pledged  herself  to  stop  this  sort  of  murder 
he  would  break  off  all  relations  with  her.   Germany  did  not 
believe  the  United  States  would  or  could  fight,  and  still 
relied  upon  hyphenated  Americans  to  keep  us  helpless, 
but  she  gave  the  pledge,  and  for  a  few  more  months  peace 
remained  possible.  But  the  plans  for  preparedness  continued 
during  1916,  and  on  the  very  day  of  the  Sussex  ultimatum 
the  United  States   seized   the   papers   of  a  German  spy, 
von  Igel,  which  proved  the  nature  of  her  secret  conspiracy 
to  tie  our  hands. 

462.  The  reelection  of  Wilson.    American  opinion  had 
supported   the   President   in   his  efforts   to   maintain   our 
neutrality,  and  had  gradually  awakened  to  the  need  for 
preparedness  while  still  holding  to  the  hope  that  war  might 
be  avoided.    Business,  which  had  suffered  greatly  in  the 
first  year  of  the  war,  improved  in  1915,  and  there  was 
no  desire  among  the  Democrats  to  select  any  other  can 
didate  in  the  election  than  President  Wilson.      He  had 
"kept  us  out  of  war,"  and  they  believed  that  if  possible 
he  would  continue  to  do  so.    He  had  also  sternly  resisted 
every  call  for  a  war  with  Mexico.  The  Republicans  tried  to 
heal   the  breach  with   the   Progressives.      Judge   Charles 
Evans  Hughes  became  their  candidate  upon  a  platform  of 


UNDILUTED  AMERICANISM 


493 


complete  preparedness  and  "  undiluted  Americanism."  1  But 
in  the  canvass  he  was  greatly  weakened  by  receiving  the 
support  of  the  organized  hyphenated  German- Americans, 
who  did  not  care  for  him,  but  who  wanted  to  punish  Presi 
dent  Wilson  for  his  refusal  to  grant  special  favors  to  Ger 
many.  The  election  was  close,  but  when  the  votes  were 

counted  it  was    seen   that  

President  Wilson  had  been 
reflected  because  of  the 
strong  support  which  the 
people  of  the  West  gave  to 
his  policies.  He  failed  to 
carry  the  great  States  of 
New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois,  yet  re 
ceived  both  popular  and 
electoral  majorities.  The 
center  of  population  had 
shifted  in  one  hundred  and 
twenty  years,  from  near 
Baltimore  to  the  vicinity 
of  Indianapolis.  It  seemed 
from  this  election  as  if  the 
center  ?f  political  influence 
had  shifted  as  well.  Here  in 
the  Middle  West  there  were 

fewer  huge  cities  than  in  the  East,  and  fewer  groups  of 
unassimilated  foreigners.  The  fundamentals  of  American 
ism  were  here  most  widely  prevalent,  and  now  they  asserted 

1  Charles  Evans  Hughes  was  born  in  New  York  in  1862,  and  first  came  to 
be  well  known  in  1905  as  counsel  in  the  New  York  insurance  investigation, 
where  he  showed  strength  of  character  and  skill  in  extracting  the  truth  about 
the  mismanagement  of  the  insurance  companies.  He  was  elected  governor  of 
New  York  in  1906  and  again  in  1908,  after  having  been  suggested  for  the 
Presidency  of  the  United  States  in  1908.  In  1910  President  Taft  appointed 
him  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  -which  position  he  resigned 
June  10,  1916,  the  day  he  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency.  After  his  defeat 
in  November  he  returned  to  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York.  In  May,  1918, 
at  the  request  of  President  Wilson  he  undertook  an  investigation  of  the  charges 
of  mismanagement  in  the  production  of  airplanes  for  the  army. 


Photograph  by  Paul  Thompsort 

RHEIMS   CATHEDRAL 

One  of  the  glories  of  Gothic  art  until  the  Germans 
deliberately  bombarded  it 


494       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 


themselves  in  the  national  crisis,  speaking  for  peace,  if  pos 
sible,  but  for  a  peace  without  hyphenated  interference. 

463.  The  program  of  peace.    Once  reflected  President 
Wilson  took  steps  to  end  the  period  of  uncertainty.     In 
December  he  called  upon  all  the  nations  at  war  to  state 
their  aims,  so  that  the  neutral  world  might  know  which 

of  them  were  fighting  for 
worthy  purposes.  The  Al 
lies  replied  with  definite 
statements,  but  Germany 
and  her  associates, -- the 
Central  Powers,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Turkey,  and  Bul 
garia,  —  were  unwilling  to 
disclose  their  aims.  In  Jan 
uary  the  President  an 
nounced  that  the  United 
States  was  ready  to  enter 
into  a  league  to  maintain 
the  peace,  and  to  extend 
to  innocent  nations  in  all 
the  world  the  same  guaran 
tees  that  the  Monroe  Doc 
trine  had  long  preserved  in 
America,  and  that  recently 
the  United  States  had  observed  in  the  case  of  Mexico.  It 
was  becoming  clear  that  the  peace  which  the  United  States 
longed  for  could  not  be  obtained  without  fighting  for  it. 

464.  German  defiance.    The  military  autocracy  in  Ger 
many  that  had  provoked  the  war  for  its  own  purposes,  and 
that  foresaw  a  revolution  against  the  Hohenzollerns  should 
it  not  win  the  war,  took  no  warning  from  the  events  in  the 
United  States.    On  February  i,  1917,  it  started  a  policy 
of  sinking,  without  warning,  merchant  ships  of  whatever 
nationality,  in  the  waters  around  England;  and  continued 
to  defend  its  submarine  piracy  on  the  ground  of  "military 
necessity"  and  retaliation.    This  was  a  repudiation  of  the 


Photograph  by  Paul  Thomp 

WITHIN  RHEIMS   CATHEDRAL 

After  bombardment 


GERMAN  DEFIANCE  495 

pledge  given  after  the  Sussex  case,  and  when  it  was  an 
nounced  President  Wilson  at  once  dismissed  the  German 
ambassador,  von  Bernstorff,  and  met  Congress  to  tell  it  of  his 
course.  A  wave  of  patriotic  devotion  spread  across  the 
country,  with  only  here  and  there  an  unimportant  obstruc 
tion,  for  the  patience  and  moderation  of  the  American 
Government  had  given  the  people  time  to  realize  the  issues 
at  stake.  Even  among  the  former  Germans  and  Austrians, 
with  whom  Germany  had  tried  to  conspire,  the  spirit  was 
generally  one  of  unity  and  loyalty.1 

QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  Washington  wish  to  avoid  "entangling  alliances"  ? 

2.  What  were  the  Hague  Conferences? 

3.  How  did  your  State  vote  in  1916? 

4.  In  what  ways  has  the  European  War  affected  the  United  States? 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  Why  should  the  United  States  join  a  league  of  nations  to  enforce 
peace? 

2.  How  were  the  ideas  of  neutrality  involved  in  the  years  1793-1812? 

3.  Compare  our  blockade  of  the  Confederacy  with  the  German  block 
ade  of  England. 

4.  Why  does  it  take  less  trouble  to  get  a  navy  into  action  in  a  war  than 
an  army? 


1  While  our  relations  with  Germany  were  thus  becoming  more  and  more 
trained,  the  purchase  (March,  1917)  of  the  Danish  West  Indies  greatly 
strengthened  our  strategic  position  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  These  islands  are  of 
negligible  value  for  their  own  products,  and  are  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
United  States  for  a  market,  and  for  their  imports.  But  they  command  the 
trade  routes  from  Europe  to  the  Panama  Canal,  and  can  easily  be  fortified. 
*>The  United  States  has  twice  previously  endeavored  to  purchase  these  islands. 


in  1865  a  proposition  of  Secretary  Seward,  whereby  we  were  to  acquire  the 
islands  for  $7,500,000,  failed  of  ratification  by  the  Senate;  in  1902,  Secretary 
Hay  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  islands  were  to  become  ours  upon  pay 
ment  of  $5,000,000.  German  influence  is  said  to  have  defeated  this  treaty  in 
the  Danish  upper  house.  The  third  effort  proved  successful,  the  price  paid 
being  $25,000,000.  By  wish  of  the  islanders,  the  ancient  name  "Virgin  Islands  " 


tvas  restored. 


CHAPTER  L 

WILSON'S  ADMINISTRATION:  "  A  WORLD  SAFE  FOR 
DEMOCRACY":  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  WAR 

465.  War  against  Germany.      Between   February   and 
April,  1917,  the  United  States  waited  in  hope  that  even 
at  the  last  Germany  might  remove  the  necessity  for  war. 
Instead  of  this  she  torpedoed  more  ships  and  intrigued 
in  Mexico.     On  April  2  the  new  Congress  met  in  special 
session  to  hear  the  President  speak  for  war :  - 

"We  have  no  quarrel  with  the  German  people,"  he  said.  "It 
was  not  upon  their  impulse  that  their  Government  acted  in 
entering  the  war.  ...  It  was  a  war  determined  upon  as  wars  used 
to  be  determined  in  the  old  unhappy  days  when  peoples  were 
nowhere  consulted  by  their  rulers,  and  wars  were  provoked  and 
waged  in  the  interests  of  dynasties  or  of  little  groups  of  ambi 
tious  men  who  were  accustomed  to  use  their  fellow  men  as  pawns 
and  tools.  .  .  .  We  have  borne  with  their  present  Government 
through  all  these  bitter  months  because  of  that  friendship  (for 
the  people  of  Germany),  exercising  a  patience  and  forbearance 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  impossible." 

Four  days  later  Congress  passed  a  declaration  that  a  state 
of  war  existed  with  Germany,  and  pledged  all  the  resources 
of  the  country  "to  bring  the  conflict  to  a  successful  termi 
nation." 

466.  The  destroyers  at  work.      In  less  than  a  month 
after  the  declaration  of  war  the  navy  was  carrying  a  share 
of  its  new  burdens.     Admiral  Sims,  with  a  fleet  of  swift 
destroyers,  was  sent  to  the  British  coast  to  help  keep  up 
the  tight  blockade  of  Germany  that  the  sturdy  British  fleet 
had  maintained  for  nearly  three  years,  and  to  help  keep  the 
ocean  pathways  clear  of  submarines  and  floating  mines. 
Other  detachments  followed  him  from  time  to  time.    And 


THE  APPEAL  OF  JOFFRE 


497 


at  home  the  shipyards  were  soon  building  ships  in  great 
numbers  to  replace  those  sunk  by  the  submarines. 

467.  The  appeal  of  Joffre.  England  and  France  still 
held  the  line  unbroken  on  the  Western  Front  from  Switz 
erland  to  the  North  Sea.  Italy  stood  guard  along  the  Alps. 
Russia  still  stood  firm 
along  the  East.  All 
were  resolute,  but  all 
were  weary  with  the 
labor  of  withstanding  the 
pressure  of  Germany's 
military  machine.  They 
had  suspended  their 
civil  life,  and  convert 
ed  themselves  and  their 
factories  to  war,  in 
order  that  they  might 
remain  free  peoples. 
They  welcomed  the  en 
try  of  a  strong  new 
nation,  and  from  Brit 
ain  and  France  came 
groups  of  statesmen 
and  generals  to  greet 


The 


Copyright  by  Harris  and  Ewiny 

ADMIRAL  SIMS 

Whose  fleet  was  on  duty  in  European  waters  in  less  than 
a  month  after  war  was  declared 


the      new      ally. 
French       mission        in 
cluded    Marshal    Joffre, 
hero  of  the  Marne,  and 

savior  of  France.  His  visit  recalled  the  earlier  crusade  of 
Lafayette,  who  in  the  Revolution  had  given  generously 
of  French  courage  to  our  cause  of  freedom.  He  stirred  the 
soul  of  America  by  his  simple  eloquence,  and  when  he 
called  for  troops  to  help  keep  the  line  in  France,  the  troops 
were  found. 

468.  Pershing  in  France.  On  June  26,  1917,  the  first 
American  division  landed  in  France.  Their  commander, 
General  John  J.  Pershing,  had  preceded  them  by  a  few 


498       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 


days,  and  on  the  Fourth  of  July  some  of  them  were  marched 
through  the  streets  of  Paris,  as  a  visible  sign  that  the  de 
mocracy  of  the  West  was  paying  its  debt  to  freedom  and 
its  first  ally.  At  the  tomb  of  Lafayette  Pershing  made  a 
simple  speech:  "The  Americans  have  come." 

469.  Men.  No  method  of  recruiting  ever  practiced  in  the 
past  in  the  United  States  would  have  provided  enough  men 

for  this  war.  In  modern 
warfare  the  whole  na 
tion  is  at  work,  each 
person  where  his  serv 
ices  are  needed  most. 
In  our  earlier  wars,  in 
which  smaller  armies 
and  less  machinery  were 
used,  volunteering  was 
our  chief  method  of  rais 
ing  troops.  But  volun 
teering  is  defective  be 
cause  the  gallant  men 
who  offer  themselves 
first  are  not  always  those 
who  can  best  be  spared 
from  the  ranks  of  in 
dustry.  On  April  6; 
1917,  there  were  in  ouf 
military  service  about 
289,000  men  (regular 
army,  127,000;  national 
guard,  80,000 ;  navy  and 

marines,  82,000).  By  voluntary  enlistment  this  total  was 
raised  to  more  than  1,500,000  within  a  year.  To  add  to  this 
number,  Congress  passed  on  May  18,  1917,  a  selective  serv 
ice  or  draft  act  holding  all  men  between  twenty-one  and 
thirty-one  years  of  age  liable  to  service  if  needed.  A  few  days 
later  9,659,382  young  men  registered  under  this  act,  and  in 
1918  there  were  750,000  more  old  enough  to  be  added  to  the 


Copyright  by  Harris  and  Ewing 

GENERAL  PERSHING 

In  command  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force,  whose 
first  units  landed  in  France  June  26, 1917 


TO  WIN  THE  WAR  499 

list.  These  men  were  classified  according  to  their  health, 
their  family  responsibilities,  and  their  business;  and  from 
their  number  more  than  a  million  had  been  drafted  into  the 
national  army  by  the  following  summer. 
Before  the  Fourth  of  July,  1918,  more 
than  a  million  American  soldiers  were  ac 
tually  in  France,  or  aboard  ships  going 
thither. 

470.  Labor.  Men  in  overalls  as  well  as 
men  in  uniforms  were  needed  to  win  the 

war.  Since  1908  the  Democrats  had  had  THE  SERVICE  FLAG 
the  support  of  many  of  the  most  promi-  Eachsfn^pa7^rvLeI)er* 
nent  labor  leaders  because  it  was  believed 
that  the  Republicans  were  unfriendly  to  labor  organization. 
The  American  Federation  of  Labor  came  out  in  loyal  sup 
port  of  President  Wilson  and  the  war  as  soon  as  it  was 
declared,  and  adopted  a  policy  of  avoiding  strikes  wherever 
it  was  possible,  in  order  to  prevent  the  curtailment  of 
production.  It  was  recognized  that  whoever  interfered  with 
industry,  whether  by  asking  too  high  a  wage  or  by  refusing 
to  pay  a  fair  wage,  whether  as  workman  or  as  employer, 
was  giving  direct  aid  to  Germany. 

471.  National  labor  policy.    In  1918,  after  long  confer 
ences  between  the  labor  organizations  and  the  associations  of 
employers,  the  National  War  Labor  Board  was  constituted, 
with  ex- President  Taft   as   its   head,  assisted   by  a  labor 
advocate,  Frank  Walsh.    This  board  took  a  broad  view  of 
the  needs  of  labor,  not  only  for  a  "  living  wage,"  but  for  a 
''comfort  wage."      It  settled  large  numbers  of  disputes, 
many  of  which  were  caused  by  sudden  increases  in  the  cost 
of  living  that  were  not  met  by  suitable  wage  increases.    Its 
work  was  made  easier  because  the  United  States  had  taken 
over  the  administration  of  the  railroads  and  telegraphs  as 
a  war  measure,  and  was  itself  operating  many  munitions 
factories.    Some  varieties  of  industrial  work  were  regarded 
as  quite  as  useful  as  service  in  the  army.    Men  at  work  in 
ship-building,  for  example,  were  exempt  from  the  draft. 


500       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

472.  Money.   Money,  too,  was  needed  in  this  new  cru 
sade  in  greater  amounts  than  ever  before.   Congress  author 
ized  a  series  of  " Liberty  Loans"  through  which  the  Gov 
ernment  borrowed  about  $12,000,000,000  in  the  first  year 
of  war.    War  savings  stamps  added  to  this  amount.    A 
great  new  tax  bill,  passed  in  October,  raised  $3,672,000,000 
more,  spreading  much  of  the  cost  of  the  war  upon  large 
incomes   or  upon  the  excess   profits  of  those  who  were 
making  fortunes  out  of  wartime  manufactures.     No  other 
country  has  ever  lived  so  well  as  the  American  people,  and 
when  the  time  came  for  sacrifice  it  was  found  that  they 
could  cheerfully  pay  heavy  taxes,  subscribe  to  tremendous 
loans,  and  still  have  money  to  give  in  huge  amounts  to  the 
Red  Cross,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  and  other  agencies  that  were  formed 
to  care  for  the  soldier  sons  and  brothers  of  those  citizens 
who  could  not  themselves  go  to  war. 

473.  Food.  All  of  the  Allies  were  in  need  of  food.  Most  of 
them,  in  ordinary  times,  had  to  import  some  of  their  food 
from  other  countries.     Now  with  their  young  men  in  the 
armies  they  needed  to  buy  still  more;  but  the  German  sub 
marines,  lying  in  wait  to  torpedo  cargo  ships,  destroyed 
much  and  hoped  to  destroy  more  until  they  might  starve 
the  Allies  into  submission.    "Food  will  win  the  War"  was 
the  cry  of  the  Government,  and  patriotic  citizens  set  out  to 
save  food,  —  wheat,  meat,  sugar,  and  fats,  —  so  that  we 
might  have  not  only  enough  for  ourselves  but  enough  to 
feed  our  Allies.     A  new  branch  of  the  Government  was 
hurriedly  formed  to  direct  the  saving  of  food  and  fuel,  and 
to  keep  selfish  " profiteers"  from  charging  too  much  for  the 
necessities  of  life.    While  our  soldiers  were  drilling  in  their 
camps  the  ships  were  carrying  cargoes  of  food  to  England, 
Italy,  and  France. 

474.  Ships.  But  there  were  not  enough  ships  for  the  work, 
and  what  there  were  were  decreasing  as  the  submarines 
took  their  toll  of  boats  and  lives.    A  new  Shipping  Board 
was  created  to  build  more  ships,  and  for  a  time  its  work 


BUILDING  THE  SHIPS 


501 


was  directed  by  the  great  engineer  who  had  just  dug  the 
Panama  Canal,  Major-General  George  W.  Goethals.  Many 
new  shipyards  were  opened,  and  existing  yards  were  in 
creased  in  size.  The  navy  was  hurrying  to  make  hundreds 
of  destroyers  to  watch  for  submarines,  and  merchant  ships 
were  constructed  wherever  there  was  room  to  build  and 
men  to  work.  Four  kinds  of  ships  were  made,  (i)  Wooden 
ships  of  the  sort  that  had  made  the  Yankee  skippers 
famous  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  were  launched 
in  shipyards  that  had  not  heard  the 
hammer  for  half  a  century.  (2)  Steel 
ships  were  riveted  together  from  plates 
that  kept  busy  the  rolling  mills  at 
Pittsburg  and  the  Lakes.  (3)  Fabri 
cated  ships  were  made  of  steel,  but 
were  made  in  sections,  partly  finished 
at  the  interior  mills  and  finally  assem 
bled  at  the  shipyards.  And  (4)  con 
crete  ships  were  tried  as  an  experiment, 
found  seaworthy,  and  built  in  numbers. 
In  the  summer  of  1918  the  shipping 
program  showed  results,  with  several 
ships  a  day  sliding  into  the  water,  and  finished  vessels 
launched  in  places  where  a  year  before  there  had  been 
only  open  meadows.  More  than  ninety  new  ships  were 
launched  on  the  Fourth  of  July,  1918. 

475.  From  cantonments  to  the  base  in  France.  Once  we 
became  convinced  that  we  must  fight  for  peace  and  freedom 
all  sides  of  life  were  shaped  to  win  the  war.  In  the  summer 
of  1917  great  camps,  or  cantonments,  were  built  to  house 
over  half  a  million  men.  Beginning  in  September  the 
drafted  men  were  called  to  camp,  uniformed,  drilled,  formed 
into  regiments  and  divisions;  and,  as  rapidly  as  ships  were 
ready,  were  sent  to  France.  The  ports  from  which  they 
sailed,  and  those  at  which  they  landed,  were  not  revealed, 
lest  the  Germans  should  learn  about  their  movements.  But 
at  ports  "somewhere  in  France"  the  army  built  great  har- 


Copyright  by  Harris  and  Ewin 

GENERAL   GOETHALS 

Who  built  the  Panama  Canal 


502       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

bors  and  docks,  warehouses  and  hospitals,  and  a  railway 
nearly  five  hundred  miles  in  length,  so  that  our  army  might 
help  itself  without  being  a' drain  upon  the  strength  and  re 
sources  of  France.  In  France  there  were  new  cantonments 
and  training-schools  where  the  soldiers  received  their  last 
instructions.  Before  Christmas  many  of  the  troops  were 
standing  in  the  front  trenches  by  the  side  of  comrades  who 
had  held  back  the  Germans  for  three  and  a  quarter  years. 

476.  Russia:  delivered  and  betrayed.    There  was  need 
for  the  American  troops  by  the  end  of  1917,  for  one  of  the 
original  Allies,  whose  deliverance  from  autocracy  had  been 
welcomed,  had  been  betrayed  by  civil  Avar  into  the  hands  of 
Germany.    Russia  stood  up  under  the  stress  of  attack  upon 
the  Eastern  Front  for  three  years,  but  at  the  outbreak  of 
war  she  had  been  impoverished  by  the  costly  and  dishonest 
Government  of  the  Czars;  and  as  the  war  and  losses  pro 
gressed  revolt  had  come.    In  March,  1917,  a  revolution  de 
throned  the  Czar  Nicholas  II,  and  the  Provisional  Govern 
ment  proclaimed  its  determination  to  stand  by  its  allies; 
but  abandoned  the  selfish  national  aims  which  the  former 
Government  had  exacted.    Once  started,  the  forces  of  re 
volt  passed  beyond  the  power  of  the  moderate  men.    Ke- 
rensky  struggled  in  vain  to  keep  the  Government  under 
control.      In  November  the  revolutionist  Socialists,  who 
called  themselves  Bolsheviki,  overturned  him,  cast  out  all 
persons  of  property  from  a  share  in  the  Government,  and 
in  a  few  weeks  began  a  negotiation  with  Germany  for  a 
separate  peace.      Germany  professed  to  negotiate  peace 
with  them,  but  really  robbed  the  defenseless  Bolsheviki 
and  the  Russia  that  they  had  betrayed.  She  took  from  them 
Poland,  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Finland,  and  Ukraine;  trying 
to  leave  Russia  prostrate  and  unable  even  to  resist.    The 
troops  that  she  needed  no  longer  on  the  Eastern  Front  Ger 
many  sent  west  for  another  great  attempt  to  break  through 
the  line  into  the  heart  of  France. 

477.  The  appeal  to  democracy.   All  through  the  war  the 
German  Government  told  its  subjects  that  it  was  fighting 


THE 
EASTERN    FRONT 


504      TtiE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

in  self  defense  against  the  Allies.  Before  bringing  the  full 
force  of  the  United  States  into  the  field  President  Wilson 
tried  once  more  to  show  the  German  people  that  safety 
for  free  government  was  our  single  purpose.  He  assured 
them  that  the  United  States  was  not  fighting  to  tear  Austria 


THE 
ITALIAN   FRONT 

— •   Battle  Line,  March  1918 
anci 


to  pieces,  or  to  destroy  Germany,  but  to  establish  a  world 
in  which  they  and  all  honorable  nations  might  hope  for 
freedom  and  safety.  He  warned  them  against  the  course 
taken  by  their  autocratic  leaders.  But  when  there  came 
from  Germany  and  Austria  no  sign  of  protest  against  their 
rulers,  he  proclaimed  against  them,  "Force!  Force  to  the 
uttermost!"  and  hurried  still  more  troops  to  France. 

478.  The  German  drive  of  1918.  All  through  the  winter 
of  1917  Germany  strengthened  her  forces  on  the  Western 
Front  in  the  hope  of  beating  the  Allies  before  our  men  could 
arrive  in  large  numbers.  It  told  its  people  that  America 
would  not  fight,  but  it  hastened  to  end  the  war  in  1918. 
On  March  21  the  drive  began,  in  the  direction  of  Paris  and 
against  the  point  in  the  line  where  the  British  and  French 
armies  met.  For  weeks  the  line  swayed  back  and  forth; 


ALLIED   UNITY  OF  COMMAND 


505 


but  it  did  not  break.  To  us  the  call  came  to  send  the  men 
at  once,  for  this  was  the  year  that  might  decide  the  future 
of  the  world.  And  the  camps  were  emptied  to  meet  the  call, 
and  more  men  were  drafted  to  fill  the  places  left  vacant  in 


—  Battle  Line  October,  1914 
•w  Battle  Line  January,  1918 
- —  Battle  Line  June  5, 1918 


our  camps,  and  President  Wilson  promised  that  we  would 
continue  to  send  men  and  food  in  increasing  amounts  until 
they  should  add  enough  weight  to  the  line  to  drive  the 
Germans  back  across  the  Rhine. 

479.  Pershing,  Foch,  and  the  single  front.    There  had 
been  some  American  troops  in  the  trenches  for  several 


506       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

months  before  the  drive  began.  Once  it  was  started, 
General  Pershing  offered  all  his  force  to  be  used  where  most 
needed,  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  either  the  British  or 
the  French.  Out  of  this  came  a  great  change  that  encour 
aged  all  the  Allies.  It  was  agreed  that  a  single  general,  or 
"generalissimo,"  should  command  all  the  troops  on  the 
Western  Front,  whatever  their  nationality.  General  Foch, 
who  with  Marshal  J  off  re  had  saved  France  in  1914,  was 
appointed  to  the  new  united  command,  and  the  Americans 
were  used  all  along  the  line.  The  blow  in  March  failed  to 
get  through.  In  April  the  Germans  struck  at  the  British 
in  Flanders,  and  were  stopped  again.  In  May  they  struck 
again  at  Paris,  pushed  through  between  the  glorious  cathe 
dral  town  of  Rheims,  and  Soissons,  and  with  the  head  of 
their  force  touched  the  river  Marne.  And  there  they 
found,  standing  between  them  and  their  goal  a  stubborn  line 
of  American  troops  who  helped  to  turn  them  back. 

480.  The  War  Cabinet.     The  united  command  of  the 
Allied  armies  under  Marshal  Foch  was  the  beginning  of 
new  vigor  and  unity  for  the  Allies.   In  the  next  few  months 
all  of  their  wealth  and  resources  as  well  as  their  soldiers 
were  placed  in  one  common  "pool,"  to  be  used  as  needed 
for  the  common  cause.    At  Versailles,  near  Paris,  their  Su 
preme  War  Council  directed  and  supported  the  main  cam 
paigns  of  Foch,  Haig,  and  Pershing.    To  assist  it  other 
councils  were   created  to  divide  and   share  food,  money, 
munitions,  and  ships.    At  home,  President  Wilson  began 
to  hold  frequent  meetings  with  a  group  of  advisers  outside 
his  regular  Cabinet,  who  became  popularly  known  as  his 
"  War  Cabinet."  This  group  included  the  chairmen  of  the 
War  Trade   Board    (McCormick),  War  Industries  Board 
(Baruch),  and  Shipping  Board  (Hurley),  and  the  directors 
of  the  Food  Administration  (Hoover),  Fuel  Administration 
(Garfield),  and  Railroad  Administration  (McAdoo). 

481.  Chateau  Thierry  and  the  Marne.     On  July  15,  1918, 
the  German  armies  attacked  again  along  the  Marne  River, 
hoping  still  to  capture  Paris.   This  time  Marshal  Foch  had 


THE  ARMISTICE  507 

learned  in  advance  where  the  blow  was  to  be  struck,  and 
had  prepared  for  it.  He  made  a  counter-attack  on  July  18, 
using  American  divisions  near  Chateau  Thierry,  where  the 
first  and  second  divisions  had  fought  so  well  in  June.  Here 
was  the  turning-point  of  the  wrar.  Slowly  but  irresistibly 
the  French  and  Americans  drove  the  Germans  back,  be 
tween  Soissons  and  Rheims,  until  by  early  August  they 
were  on  a  steady  retreat.  For  a  second  time  the  enemy  had 
reached  the  Marne,  in  vain. 

482.  Saint-Mihiel  and  the  Argonne.     There  was  new 
confidence  among  the  Allies  in  August,  1918.   The  "  bridge 
of  ships  "  was  now  pouring  "  Yanks  "  into  France  (244,000 
in  May,  277,000  in  June,  306,000  in  July);  and  at  Wash 
ington  it  was  decided  to  place  eighty  divisions  —  nearly 
4,000,000  men  —  on  the  line  in  the  summer  of  1919.    The 
draft  age  (see  par.  469)  was  extended,  bringing  in  all  men  be 
tween  eighteen  and  forty-five.  The  troops  already  overseas 
were  finishing  their  training  periods.   In  September  General 
Pershing  conducted  an  American  attack  against  the  sal 
ient  at  Saint-Mihiel,  as  a  preliminary  to  a  larger  use  of  his 
forces  —  now  well  over  1,000,000  men.   He  was  completely 
successful.    On  September  26  he  began  another  operation, 
winning  the  forest  of  the  Argonne,  and  pushing  in  October 
toward  the  German  railroad  line  at  Sedan.    The  control  of 
this  region  by  the  Allies   would  throw  the  whole  German 
army  into  confusion. 

483.  The  Armistice,  November  n,  1918.   For  reasons  of 
sentiment,  the  Allies  desired  to  retake  Sedan  and  Mons. 
The  Americans  took  the  former,  and  the  British  the  latter; 
but  the  Central  Powers  had  already  sensed  defeat.    First 
Bulgaria,  then  Turkey,  then  Austria-Hungary  begged  for 
peace  and  accepted  the  terms  set  by  the  Supreme  War 
Council.    Germany  was  left  alone;  and  in  Germany  the 
common  people  started  a  revolution  against  the  Kaiser  and 
the  military  party.    On  November  9  the  Kaiser  sought  re 
fuge  in  Holland,  and  two  days  later  the  envoys  of  the  Ger 
man  Government  signed  an  armistice  agreement  imposed 


508       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

upon  them  by  the  victorious  Allies.  There  were  now  more 
than  2,000,000  Americans  overseas,  with  more  to  come, 
and  with  unlimited  resources  to  back  them  up.  The  war 
was  won.  England,  Belgium,  and  France  had  saved  the 
world;  first  by  their  resistance  to  the  German  invasion; 
then  by  their  patient  holding  of  the  line  until  enough 
United  States  troops  arrived  to  turn  the  tide  of  battle. 
No  single  nation  among  the  Allies  won  the  war,  but  all  of 
them,  united  at  last  in  the  Supreme  War  Council.  If  this 
could  only  hold  together  it  would  be,  as  it  already  was,  a 
League  of  Nations. 

484.  President  Wilson  goes  to  Paris.     A  few  days  after 
the  signing  of  the  armistice,  President  Wilson  announced 
that  he  would  himself  go  to  Europe,  to  sit  as  a  member  of 
the  Supreme  \Var  Council,  and  to  act  as  an  American  rep 
resentative  at  the  Peace  Conference.  The  unity  among  the 
Allies  that  had  won  the  war  was  largely  due  to  his  leader 
ship.    He  had  led  in  showing  to  the  German  and  Austrian 
peoples  th^  crimes  of  their  rulers.    He  had  promised  that 
the  United  States  would  be  willing  to  become  a  partner  in 
the  right  kind  of  a  League  of  Nations.   And  he  had  stated, 
in  January,  1918,  "  fourteen  points  "  which  were  necessary 
to  be  included  in  a  fair  treaty  of  peace.   All  the  Allies,  and 
now  even  the  Central  Powers,  had  expressed  approval  of 
his  fourteen  points.  He  was  needed  in  Paris  to  help  include 
them  in  the  final  treaty.    No  other  President  had  ever  gone 
to  Europe ;  but  no  other  had  ever  had  need  to  go.   He  sailed 
on  the  George  Washington  on  December  4,  1918,  and  was 
greeted  at  Paris,  Rome,  and  London  as  no  other  American 
had  ever  been.  To  the  people  of  Europe  he  seemed  to  rep- 
resent  the  miracle  that  had  saved  them  from  Germany, 
and  to  promise  them  that  there  should  be  no  more  wars. 

485.  The  League  of  Nations.    The  Peace  Conference  - 
including  as  yet  only  the  Allied  nations  —  held  its  first  ses 
sion  January  18,  1919,  after  several  weeks  of  conferences 
among  the  Allied  statesmen  and  within  the  Supreme  \Var 
Council.    In  a  few  days  the  delegates  agreed  to  frame  a 


PROBLEMS  OF  RECONSTRUCTION  509 

League  of  Nations  as  a  part  of  the  peace  treaty,  and  ap 
pointed  committees  to  study  this,  as  well  as  such  other 
matters  as  boundaries,  reparation,  punishment,  and  labor 
conditions.  On  February  14,  the  outline  of  the  League  of 
Nations  was  read  to  the  Peace  Conference  by  President 
Wilson,  who  was  chairman  of  the  committee  that  drew  it 
up.  There  started  at 'once,  all  over  the  world,  an  earnest 
discussion  as  to  whether  there  ought  to  be  a  League  of  Na 
tions  and  whether  this  was  the  best  possible  kind.  The  next 
day  President  Wilson  started  back  to  the  United  States. 

486.  The  Death  of  Theodore  Roosevelt.     On  January  6, 
1919,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  greatest  private  American 
citizen,  died.  Since  the  death  of  General  Grant  in  1885  (see 
par.  383),  no  American  had  left  so  many  of  his  fellow-citi 
zens  with  a  sense  of  grief  and  loss.  After  his  retirement  from 
the  presidency  in  1909,  Colonel  Roosevelt's  judgment  had 
been  sought  in  every  crisis;  and  through  his  whole  career 
he  had  stood  for  good  government  as  he  saw  it,  for  clean 
life  and  high  ideals.  He  proudly  wore  four  stars  in  his  serv 
ice  pin  during  the  Great  War,  and  when  his  youngest  son 
was  killed  in  action,  his  loss  was  the  nation's.  He  was  buried 
as  a  quiet  country  gentleman,  near  his  home  at  Oyster  Bay, 
with  members  of  the  New  York  police  force  that  he  had 
loved  and  served  on  guard  at  his  grave,  and  with  aviators 
circling  above  and  strewing  flowers  over  it. 

487.  The  Eighteenth  Amendment.     A  new  amendment 
to  the  Constitution  was  proclaimed  in  January,  1919.   This 
was   commonly   known   as   the   "  dry  "   amendment,  and 
had  been  urged  by  temperance  reformers  for  many  years. 
Many  of  the  States  had  already  excluded  alcoholic  drinks 
by  their  own  action,  and  under  the  principles  of  local  op 
tion  and  prohibition  most  of  the  area  of  the  country  was 
dry.    Under  the  new  amendment  the  manufacture,   sale, 
transportation,  import,  or   export  of   intoxicating  liquors 
for  beverage  purposes  was  prohibited.    This  will  become 
effective  January  16,  1920. 

488.  Problems  of  Reconstruction.     The  visit  of  Presi- 


5io      THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

dent  Wilson  to  France  was  cut  short  by  the  need  to  sign 
bills  and  assist  Congress  in  its  closing  days.  Congress  suf 
fered  in  his  absence,  from  the  uncertainties  of  the  future, 
and  from  the  anger  of  some  of  its  members  because  he  had 
left  the  United  States.  The  elections  of  November,  1918, 
assured  a  Republican  majority  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives  after  March  4,  1919;  and  a  few  of  the  Republican 
party  tried  to  block  laws  so  as  to  leave  the  whole  business 
of  reconstruction  to  a  Congress  that  they  might  dominate. 
No  other  war  had  so  greatly  upset  the  life  of  ordinary  peo 
ple.  Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria  were  in  revolution. 
The  problem  of  reconstruction  was  whether  revolution 
should  spread  over  all  the  world,  or  whether  the  discontent 
producing  revolution  should  be  lightened  by  wise  laws. 
Food  was  high  and  work  was  scarce.  New  laws  were 
needed  to  help  business,  education,  and  labor  and  to  pro 
tect  all  persons  in  their  rights  in  life.  The  war  had  been 
fought  to  make  it  possible  for  democratic  government  to 
exist.  President  Wilson  believed  that  a  firm  foundation 
for  peace  was  the  first  end  to  be  gained.  He  remained  in 
Washington  long  enough  to  approve  the  necessary  laws; 
went  to  New  York,  where  he  and  the  only  living  ex- Presi 
dent,  William  H.  Taft,  pleaded  for  a  League  of  Nations; 
and  then  sailed  again  on  March  5,  1919,  for  Paris  and  the 
Peace  Conference. 

489.  The  Treaty  of  Peace.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
on  June  28,  1919,  in  the  palace  at  Versailles,  where  the 
German  Empire  had  been  proclaimed  in  1871.  Germany 
was  here  forced  to  accept  the  terms  imposed  upon  her  by 
the  victors  in  the  Great  War.  These  terms,  the  outgrowth 
of  the  "fourteen  points"  as  modified  by  discussion  and 
local  conditions  (see  paragraph  484),  were  intended  to  pre 
vent  any  other  unprovoked  attack  upon  the  peace  of  the 
world,  and  to  secure  self-government  to  subject  peoples 
who  had  been  oppressed  by  Germany  and  Austria.  The 
opening  clauses  of  the  treaty  contained  the  covenant,  or 
agreement,  for  a  League  of  Nations,  to  which  all  the  Allies 


THE  TREATY  OF  PEACE  511 

were  pledged,  and  whose  council  and  assembly  were  to  safe 
guard  the  peace  of  the  world  in  the  future. 

490.  The  Senate  and  the  Covenant.  The  treaty  and  the 
covenant  of  the  League  were  sent  to  the  Senate  in  July,  for 
the  Constitution  requires  that  all  treaties  shall  receive  the 
concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  that  body  before  they  become 
law.    Here  in  the  Senate  there  was  a  Republican  majority, 
opposed  politically  to  the  President;  and  here  also  were 
many  senators  in  both  parties  who  were  exasperated  because 
they  had  not  been  consulted  by  him,  and  who  feared  that 
membership  in  the  League  might  interfere  with  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  by  forcing  the  United  States  to  arbitrate  it  (see 
paragraph  258),  or  might  even  lessen  the  independence  of 
the  United  States,  Four  months  were  spent  in  bitter  debate 
over  the  covenant  and  the  League,  with  Senators  Lodge, 
Johnson,    Borah,    Poindexter,    and    Reed    leading    in    the 
criticism. 

491.  Demobilization.    Meanwhile  the  army  was  coming 
home  from  France.   After  the  Armistice  a  few  of  the  Ameri 
can  divisions  had  been  marched  into  Germany  with  the 
army  of  occupation ;  and  some  troops  were  to  remain  there 
for  an  indefinite  time  after  the  war.   But  most  of  them  were 
to  come  home.    The  huge  machinery  of  docks,  ships,  rail 
roads,   and  supplies  was  now  reversed,   and  from   Brest, 
Saint-Nazaire,  and  Bordeaux  the  "Yanks"  came  back  even 
faster  than  they  had  sailed.    Some  of  the  divisions  were 
held  together  to  parade  at  home  —  the  Twenty-Seventh 
and  Seventy-Seventh  in  New  York,  the  Twenty-Sixth  in 
Boston,  the  Twenty-Eighth  in  Philadelphia.    At  the  end 
came  the  First  Division,  in  September,  1919,  —  the  first  to 
go   and  the  last    to   return,  —  and   this   in   full    strength 
marched  up  Pennsylvania  Avenue  before  the  White  House, 
with  Pershing  at  the  head,  in  the  most  imposing  parade 
since  the   " grand  review"   in   1865    (see  paragraph  350). 
While  the  men  from  the  A.E.F.  were  being  demobilized 
(discharged  from  military  service)  there  came  events  that 
commemorated  the  difference  between  this  and  other  wars. 


512      THE   UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD  POWER 

A  British  airplane  with  two  occupants  flew  from  New 
foundland  to  Ireland,  where  it  landed  after  a  sixteen-hour 
flight,  on  June  15,  1919.  It  had  been  preceded  in  flying 
across  the  Atlantic  by  an  American  naval  airplane,  com 
manded  by  Lieutenant-Commander  Read,  flying  from  New 
foundland  to  the  Azores,  and  thence  to  Spain  and  England ; 
and  was  followed  by  a  British  dirigible  that  came  from 
England  to  New  York  direct.  The  conquest  of  the  air  in 
these  crossings  of  the  Atlantic  marked  the  birth  of  a  new 
world. 

492.  Labor  Unrest.    But  the  new  world  was  not  yet  at 
peace,  and  was  suffering  from  unemployment,  lack  of  hous 
ing,  and  high  prices,  so  that  a  series  of  great  strikes  by  labor 
unions  engaged  in  railroad,  coal  mining,  and  other  industrial 
work  was  the  result.   The  war  boards  (see  paragraph  471) 
were  nearly  all  disbanded  by  the  summer  of  1919,  and  could 
not  mediate  between  labor  and  capital,  in  the  interest  of 
all  the  people.    President  Wilson  urged  labor  to  wait  in 
patience,  though  prices  were  nearly  double  what  they  had 
been  in  1913;  and  he  urged  Congress  to  pass  new  laws  to 
enable  the  Government  to  punish  profiteering  and  to  force 
the  prices  down.  On  October  6,  1919,  there  met  at  his  invi 
tation  in  Washington  an  Industrial  Conference,  composed 
of  representatives  of  capital,  labor,  and  the  general  public, 
to  consider  the  relations  that  ought  to  exist  in  the  industrial 
world.  The  conference  broke  up  in  a  few  days  because  labor 
and  capital,  or  their  spokesmen,   could  not  agree.    The 
President  could  not  control  or  lead  them  because  his  health 
had  failed,  and  he  was  sick  in  the  White  House. 

493.  Bolshevism.  The  labor  unrest  was  believed  by  some 
to  be  the  deliberate  work  of  the  "reds,"  or  radical  revolu 
tionists  who   called   the   Government   "  capitalistic "    and 
wanted  to  overturn  it  by  force.  Some  of  these  openly  wished 
to  imitate  the  Russian  revolution  (see  paragraph  476),  and 
to  erect  soviet  government  —  or  government,  not  by  de 
mocracy,  but  by  classes  and  industrial  groups.   These  agi 
tators  were  called  "Bolshevists"  after  the  Russian  revolu- 


UNREST  AND  UNCERTAINTY  513 

tionary  party,  and  there  was  much  talk  of  excluding  from 
the  United  States  Bolshevist  or  anarchist  immigrants,  and 
of  punishing  attempts  to  overturn  the  Government.  A 
great  strike  in  the  steel  industry,  beginning  September  22, 
was  led  by  men,  some  of  whom  were  in  this  class.  It  was 
kept  within  bounds,  at  Gary,  Indiana,  by  United  States 
troops  under  General  Leonard  Wood,  for  President  Wilson 
was  determined  that  the  law  should  be  respected  and  peace 
maintained. 

494.  Uncertainty.  The  treaty  and  the  covenant  were 
meanwhile  still  in  the  Senate,  and  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy,  who  had  already  ratified,  were  waiting  to  learn 
what  the  United  States  proposed  to  do,  and  to  launch  the 
League  of  Nations.  President  Wilson  spoke  for  the  treaty 
in  the  Western  States  in  September,  believing  that  the 
future  peace  of  the  world  and  the  return  to  domestic  quiet 
depended  upon  prompt  ratification ;  and  while  on  this  cam 
paign  he  broke  down  and  was  sent  home  by  his  doctors. 
The  unrest  and  uncertainty  aroused  deep  fears;  but  many 
Americans  recalled  that  more  than  once  before,  in  the  days 
of  Washington,  and  Jackson,  and  Lincoln,  and  Grant,  the 
Nation  had  been  disturbed  to  its  foundations,  yet  had 
seemed  to  retain  an  inherent  power  to  right  itself. 


5H       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 


QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  Marshal  Joffre  want  American  troops  at  once? 

2.  What  was  the  American  debt  to  France? 

3.  Explain    what    Thrift    Stamps    are?  —  \Var    Savings    Stamps?  — 
Liberty  Bonds? 

4.  What  did  you  give  up  or  go  without  to  help  win  the  war? 

COMPOSITION  SUBJECTS 

1.  The  experiences  of  a  drafted  man. 

2.  What  would  Washington  have  said  at  the  tomb  of  Lafayette? 

3.  Which  of  the  countries  of  Europe  have  sent  us  the  most  immi 
grants? 

4.  Write  a  speech  for  a  school  child  of  France  to  make  on  the  return  of 
the  American  troops. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  PERIOD  SINCE  THE  CIVIL  WAR 

THE  period  since  the  Civil  War  has  been  a  period  of  steady 
preparation  of  the  nation  to  face  and  carry  responsibilities.  Good 
feeling  between  the  warring  sections  returned  slowly.  Hayes,  by 
a  policy  of  wise  moderation,  made  possible  home  rule  for  the  South. 
Prosperity  in  the  next  decade  did  much  to  heal  the  wounds.  And 
finally  the  Spanish  War  brought  together,  side  by  side,  the  sons  of 
the  Blue  and  the  sons  of  the  Gray. 

The  former  slaves  are  making  advances  in  welfare.  Schools 
have  been  established  to  help  them,  like  that  at  Tuskegee, 
founded  by  Booker  T.  Washington.  They  have  made  progress  as 
farmers,  and  their  sons,  like  the  sons  of  their  old  masters,  are 
now  fighting  in  the  trenches  in  France. 

Among  the  developments  of  this  period  have  been  the  concen 
tration  of  financial  power  in  the  hands  of  certain  captains  of 
industry,  and  the  appearance  of  the  multi-millionaire.  The  great 
parties  have  taken  up  the  problem  of  controlling  the  use  of  this 
great  wealth,  so  that  it  may  not  be  of  injury  to  the  country.  Labor 
has  organized  in  unions  in  order  to  be  better  able  to  make  agree 
ments  with  employers.  Many  laws  were  passed  at  the  end  of  the 
period  to  lessen  unfair  competition  and  to  preserve  fair  play  for 
all. 

Important  events  in  our  financial  history  are  the  panics  of 
1873  and  1893,  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  in  1879,  the 
triumph  of  the  gold  standard  in  1896,  and  the  creation  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  banking  system.  After  passing  successively  the 


REVIEW  515 

McKinley,  Wilson,  Dingley,  Payne- Aldrich,  and  Underwood 
tariff  bills,  Congress  has  inaugurated  a  scientific  study  of  im 
ports  and  taxes  by  creating  a  Tariff  Commission. 

The  reform  of  the  Civil  Service  has  been  of  value  in  protecting 
the  stability  of  the  Federal  Government;  and  the  Australian 
Ballot  system  and  the  Direct  primary  have  served  to  safeguard 
the  rights  of  voters. 

The  United  States  has  constantly  led  in  urging  upon  all  coun 
tries  the  adoption  of  arbitration  instead  of  war.  As  far  back  as 
1823  the  Monroe  Doctrine  expressed  a  willingness  to  protect  the 
weaker  nations  of  America.  Japan  was  led  into  relationships 
with  other  powers  by  the  United  States;  and  the  confidence  shown 
in  our  Government  by  the  Chinese  was  justified  when  at  the  time 
of  the  Boxer  Rebellion  our  demands  were  moderate  and  our  in 
fluence  restrained  the  excessive  demands  of  Germany.  The  "Open 
Door"  policy  was  a  natural  development  from  our  old  practices. 
Cuba  was  set  free  and  kept  free.  In  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philip 
pines  our  administration  has  been  for  the  benefit  of  the  peoples 
living  in  the  islands.  For  nearly  three  years  in  the  Great  War  we 
held  to  our  policy  of  rigid  neutrality,  in  the  hope  that  at  last  Ger 
many  would  moderate  her  policies;  when  she  instead  drove  us 
into  the  struggle  we  entered  with  no  hope  or  desire  of  profit  for 
ourselves,  but  to  help  our  Allies  keep  the  world  open  for  free 
institutions. 

In  this  period  we  have  increased  our  territory  about  one  fourth. 
Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines  have  come  to 
us,  but  we  have  fought  no  war  to  gain  territory,  and  have  re 
frained  from  attacking  Mexico  even  after  great  provocation. 
Our  population  in  1860  was  about  thirty- two  millions;  it  has 
grown  to  about  one  hundred  millions,  with  great  cities  in  which 
nearly  one  half  of  the  people  live. 

We  have  profited  by  inventions  and  engineering  enterprises. 
The  skyscraper,  the  subway;  the  airplane,  the  submarine;  irri 
gation  projects,  Mississippi  River  jetties,  the  Panama  Canal; 
the  Hoe  press,  the  typewriter,1  the  type-setting  machine,  the 
incandescent  light,2 --all  have  helped  to  make  our  .world  a 
brighter  and  better  world  to  live  in. 

We  have  continued  to  hold  out  the  hand  of  welcome  to  the  im- 

e  l  Patented  in  1868  by  Christopher  Latham  Sholes  of  Milwaukee,  Wiscon 
sin.  His  first  typewriting  machine  is  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Buf 
falo  (N.Y.)  Historical  Society. 

2  Thomas  A.  Edison,  of  New  Jersey,  made  the  inventions  that  made  pos 
sible  the  incandescent  light.  It  was  first  used  on  a  large  scale  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago,  in  1893,  where  rows  of  the  lights  outlined 
the  roofs  and  columns  of  the  buildings. 


516       THE  UNITED  STATES  A  WORLD   POWER 

migrant.  Until  1880  western  and  northern  Europe  sent  most  of 
our  newcomers  (see  footnote  I,  page  330).  After  1880  Italy, 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Austria  began  to  send  us  large  numbers. 
These  we  have  welcomed.  As  they  have  come  to  include  more 
and  more  uneducated  and  impoverished  races,  we  have  inspected 
them  more  and  more  carefully,  sending  home  those  unlikely  to 
make  good  citizens.  Our  schools  have  been  open  to  their  chil 
dren,  and  among  our  most  loyal  people  to-day  are  many  whose 
fathers  came,  or  who  even  came  themselves,  from  the  countries 
with  which  we  are  now  at  war.  In  the  future  we  must  take  even 
greater  pains  to  give  them  a  chance  to  grow  quickly  into  real 
Americans,  and  to  make  sure  that  those  who  come  here  and  re 
main  do  so  because  they  desire  to  live  among  a  free  people  in  a 
real  democracy. 

RECOMMENDED  READINGS 

HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Hart's  American  History  by  Contemporaries,  vol. 
FV,  pp.  458-668.  Fiske's  United  States,  pp.  393-411.  Wilson's  Division  and 
Reunion,  pp.  254-357;  History  of  American  People,  vol.  v,  pp.  1-44,  115- 
300.  Andrews's  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times,  chaps.  I,  n,  iv,  v,  vn- 
ix,  xvi-xvin,  xxvn-xxx.  Peck's  Twenty  Years  of  the  Republic,  chaps. 
l-viil,  xin-xvi.  Dunning's  Reconstruction,  chaps,  I,  v,  viu,  ix,  xiv,  xvn- 
xxi.  Sparks's  Expansion  of  American  People,  chaps,  xxx,  xxxiv,  xxxv; 
National  Development,  chaps.  I,  m-v,  xn-xv,  xix.  Dewey's  National 
Problems,  chaps.  I,  vn.  Latane's  America  as  a  World  Power,  chaps,  i-v, 
xu,  xiv.  Rhodes's  United  States,  vol.  vi,  chaps,  xxxm,  xxxvi,  xxxviii; 
vol.  vii,  chaps.  XL,  XLIV.  Coman's  Industrial  History  of  United  States,  pp. 
347-74.  Bogart's  Economic  History,  chaps,  xxvi-xxx.  Hubert's  Inventors, 


n,  in,  Vi-vui.  Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders,  chaps.  I,  iv,  v.  Griffis's  America 
in  the  East,  chaps,  i-v,  xvin-xx.  Grady's  New  South,  pp.  144-267.  Wash 
ington's  Up  from  Slavery.  Riis's  Making  of  an  American,  chaps,  n,  ix- 
xiii.  Stanwood's  History  of  the  Presidency,  pp.  313-509.  Mrs.  Logan's 
Thirty  Years  in  Washington,  chaps.  XLVI-LIII.  Le  Roy's  Philippine  Life  in 
Town  and  Country.  Hill's  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  chaps,  ix-xn,  xvm,  xix. 
McLaughlin's  My  Friend  the  Indian,  chaps,  vin-xn,  xvm.  Mrs.  W.  H. 
Taft's  Recollections  of  Full  Years.  Thayer's  John  Hay.  New  York  Times 
Current  History.  U.S.  Committee  on  Public  Information's  War  Cyclo 
pedia;  How  the  War  Came  to  America;  Flag  Day  Address. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Hart's  Source-Book,  pp.  336-92.  Elson's  Side  Lights  on 
American  History,  vol.  n,  chaps,  vn-xiv.  Tappan's  Our  Country's  Story, 
pp.  229-52.  Hurlbut's  Lives  of  Our  Presidents,  pp.  184-282.  Alton's  Among 
the  Lawmakers.  Baker's  Boys1  Book  of  Inventions;  Boys'  Second  Book  of 


RECOMMENDED   READINGS  517 

Inventions,  pp.  28-29,  207-54,  293-320.  Perry's  Four  American  Inventors 
(Edison).  Williams's  Romance  of  Modern  Locomotion.  Iles's  Flame,  Elec 
tricity  and  the  Camera.  Avary's  Dixie  after  the  War,  chaps,  vi,  vn,  xxm- 
xxviii.  Eastman's  Indian  Boyhood.  Mrs.  Custer's  Boots  and  Saddles; 
Following  the  Guidon;  Tenting  on  the  Plains.  Thompson's  Gold-Seeking  on 
:he  Dalton  Trail.  Brooks's  Story  of  Our  War  with  Spain.  Abbot's  Blue 
Jackets  of  '98.  Ross's  Heroes  of  Our  War  with  Spain.  Beebe's  Four  Ameri 
can  Naval  Heroes  (Dewey).  Twombley's  Hawaii  and  its  People.  Mac- 
Clintock's  Philippines.  Seabury's  Porto  Rico.  Hall  and  Chester's  Panama 
and  the  Canal.  Matthews's  Remaking  the  Mississippi.  Jones's  Life  of  Edison. 
Paine's  Life  of  Mark  Twain.  Empey's  Over  the  Top.  Aldrich's  A  Hilltop 
on  the  Marne.  Hall's  High  Adventure. 

FICTION 

TEACHERS'  LIST.  Alice  Brown's  King's  End.  Cable's  John  March, 
Southerner.  Carryl's  Lieutenant  -Governor.  Churchill's  Mr.  Crewe1  s  Career; 
Coniston.  Craddock's  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains.  Foote's  Led 
Horse  Claim.  Ford's  The  Honorable  Peter  Sterling.  Fox's  Crittenden. 
Garland's  Main  Traveled  Roads.  Glasgow's  Romance  of  a  Plain  Man. 
Grant's  An  Average  Man.  Harris's  Gabriel  Tolliver.  Howells's  Rise  of 
Silas  Lapham.  Jewett's  Country  of  the  Pointed  Firs.  Kelly's  Little  Citizens. 
Page's  Red  Rock.  Hopkinson  Smith's  Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville.  Octave 
Thanet's  Heart  of  Toil;  Missionary  Sheriff.  Warner's  A  Little  Journey  in  the 
World.  White's  A  Certain  Rich  Man.  Wilkins's  Portion  of  Labor.  Wi&ter's 
The  Virginian.  Rinehart's  Amazing  Interlude. 

PUPILS'  LIST.  Andy  Adams's  Wells  Brothers.  Austin's  Uncle  Sam's 
Secrets.  Mary  Austin's  The  Basket  Woman.  Brooks's  Last  of  the  Strong 
Hearts.  Codd's  With  Evans  to  the  Pacific.  Grinnell's  Jack  the  Young  Ranch 
man;  Jack  among  the  Indians.  Hough's  Young  Alaskans.  Johnston's  The 
Little  Colonel's  Hero.  Kipling's  Captains  Courageous.  Otis's  When  Dewey 
Came  to  Manila.  Stoddart's  Little  Smoke;  Talking  Leaves;  Two  Arrows. 
Western  Stories  Retold  from  St.  Nicholas. 

POETRY 

Austin's  Anglo-American  Entente.  Carryl's  When  the  Great  Gray  Ships 
Come  in.  Cawein's  Ku-Klux.  Cheney's  San  Francisco.  Finch's  The  Blue 
and  the  Grey.  Holmes's  Broomstick  Train.  Hovey's  Word  of  the  Lord  from 
Havana.  Kipling's  White  Man's  Burden.  Longfellow's  Revenge  of  Rain- 
in-the-Face.  Stedman's  Hymn  of  the  West;  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World. 
Whittier's  Cable  Hymn;  Chicago;  Centennial  Hymn.  Woodberry's  My 
Country;  Rhymes  of  a  Red  Cross  Man. 


SIGNIFICANT  DATES 


1492.  Discovery  of  America  (the  West  Indies) 

by  Columbus  (f  n). 
1497.  Discovery  of  the  continent  of  North 

America  by  Cabot  (U  19). 
1513.  Discovery    of    the    Pacific    Ocean    by 

Balboa  (1f  21). 
1519-1522.  First  voyage  around  the  world  by 

Magellan's  expedition  (H  22). 
1534.  Exploration  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 

by  Cartier  (H  32). 
1540.  Exploration  of  the  Southwest  by  Coro- 

nado  (1  25). 
1565.  Founding    of    St.    Augustine,    Florida 

(U  26). 
1577-1580.  Drake's  voyage  around  the  world 

(130). 

1588..  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  (If  29). 
1607.  Founding  of  Jamestown,  Virginia  (U  57). 
1609.  Discovery  of  the  Hudson  River  (If  31). 

1619.  First  importation  of  slaves  (If  62). 
Beginning    of    representative    govern 
ment  (H  63). 

1620.  Founding  of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts 

(1  79). 

1639.  The  Constitution  of  Connecticut  ( 11  90) . 
1643.  New  England  Confederation  formed 

(11  92). 

1664.  New  Netherland  became  New  York 

(11  97). 
1673.  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  River  by  | 

Marquette  and  Jolliet  (f  37). 
1682.  Louisiana   claimed   for  France   by   La 

Salle  (H  38). 
1754.  Plan   of  colonial  union   adopted  at  Al-  i 

bany  (f  133). 
1759.  Capture  of  Quebec  by  the  English 

(II  138). 
3763.  Treaty  of  Peace  ending  the  French  and 

Indian  War  (1f  139). 
1765.  Parliament  passed  the  Stamp  Act 

(11  148). 

1774.  First  Continental  Congress  (If  156). 

1775.  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord 

(If  158). 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (f  162). 

1776.  Declaration  of  Independence  (1f  166). 

1777.  Surrender  of    Burgoyne  at  Saratoga 

(1  176). 

1778.  French  alliance  with  the  United  States 

(If  179). 
1778-1779-  Clark's  conquest  of  the  Northwest 

(11  184). 
1781.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown 

(1  iQi). 
Articles  of  Confederation  adopted 

(I  196). 


1783.  Treaty  of  Peace  ending  the  War  of  the 
Revolution  (1f  194). 

1787.  Northwest  Ordinance  adopted  (1f  198). 
Meeting  of  the  Constitutional  Conven 
tion  (H  200). 

1789.  Election  of  Washington  as  President 

(11203). 

1792.  Invention  of  the  cotton  gin  (1f  210). 

1798-1799.  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolu 
tions  (If  224). 

1803.  Purchase  of  Louisiana  (If  228). 

1807.  First  steamboat  navigated  the  Hudson 
River  (If  232). 

1812-1815.  Second  war  with  England  (IfU  238- 
249). 

1819.  Purchase  of  Florida  (If  254). 

1820.  Missouri  Compromise  (H  257). 

1823.  Announcement  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 

(11  258). 

1825.   Completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  (II  260). 
1829.   First  railroad  in  America  (1f  261). 
1832.   Nullification  in  South  Carolina  (If  269). 
1844.  First  successful  use  of  the  telegraph 

(f  281). 

1846-1848.  War  with  Mexico  (If  287). 
1848.    Discovery  of  gold  in  California  (1f  291) 
1850.   Compromise  on  slavery  (1f  297). 
1854.  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  (1f  302). 
Perry's  visit  to  Japan  (If  305). 
1857-  The  Dred  Scott  case  (H  307). 

1860.  Election  of  Lincoln  (1f  315). 

1861.  Beginning  of  the  Civil  War  (1f  321). 

1862.  Duel  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Mer- 

rimac  (If  333). 

1863.  Lincoln's    Emancipation    Proclamation. 

(1f336). 

Battle  of  Gettysburg  («f  337). 
Surrender  of  Vicksburg  ( H  339) . 

1865.  Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox  (1f  348). 
Assassination  of  Lincoln  ( 11  349) . 

1866.  Completion  of  the  Atlantic  cable  (f  366). 

1867.  Purchase  of  Alaska  (If  367). 

1869.  Completion  of  the  first  railroad  to  the 

..      Pacific  (H  37i). 
1898.  War  with  Spain  (IfU  400-406). 

Annexation  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 

(U  407). 

;  1903-  Construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  be 
gun  (If  414). 
Completion     of     a     telegraphic     cable 

around  the  world  (If  415). 
,  1909.  Discovery  of  the  North  Pole  (If  422). 
1914.  The  World  War  began  (If  446). 

1917.  The   United    States    entered    the'  War 

(If  465). 

1918.  The  World  War  ended  (If  489). 


APPENDIX  A --THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  (Adopted  in  1787) 

PREAMBLE 

WE,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a^more  perfect  union 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common 
defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty 
to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitu 
tion  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I.  THE  LEGISLATIVE,  OR  LAW-MAKING  POWER 

Section  I.   Congress  in  General 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa 
tives. 

Section  II.   The  House  of  Representatives 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
€very  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors  in 
each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State 
in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the 
several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  tc 
their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole 
number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.    The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term 
of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.    The  number  of 
Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative;  and  until  such  enumeration 
shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose 
three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one, 
Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight, 
Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South 
Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the 
executive  authdrity  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 


ii  APPENDIX 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.   The  Senate 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,1  for  six  years;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first 
election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The 
seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of 
the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year, 
and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third 
may  be  chosen  every  second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation, 
or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President  pro 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When 
sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.    When  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside:  and 
no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the 
members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of 
honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States:  but  the  party  convicted 
shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and 
punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  IV.   How  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  be  chosen,  and  when 

they  are  to  meet 

1.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators  and 
Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such 
meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law 
appoint  a  different  day. 

1  Some  persons  believe  that  United  States  Senators  should  be  elected  by  the  people  at  large, 
as  governors  of  States  are  elected.  To  do  this  would  require  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States;  but  under  present  laws  a  State  can  indicate  its  choice  for  Senator  at  what  is 
called  a  primary.  The  result  of  such  a  primary,  while  not  legally  binding  upon  the  legislature,  is 
considered  as  morally  binding. 


THE   CONSTITUTION  iii 

Section  V.   Rules  of  Procedure 

1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and  qualifica 
tions  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum 
to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and 
may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such 
manner,  and  under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds, 
expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time 
to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment 
require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house 
on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on 
the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  con 
sent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place 
than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.    Compensation,  Privileges,  and  Restrictions 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to.be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States.1   They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony  and  breach  of 
the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same; 
and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned 
in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall 
have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  con 
tinuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.    Mode  of  Passing  Laws 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  on 
other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with 
his  objections  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall 
enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider 
it.  If  after  such  reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass 
the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that 
house,  it  shall  become  a  law.    But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both  houses 
shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting 

1  At  present  both  Senators  and  Representatives  receive  $7500  annually,  with  an  additional 
allowance  for  clerk  hire,  stationery,  and  traveling  expenses. 


iv  APPENDIX 

for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  re 
spectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten 
days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by 
their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  jnot  be  a  law. 
3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  ques 
tion  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or 
being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  pre 
scribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  VIII.   Powers  granted  to  Congress 

The  Congress  shall  have  power: 

1 .  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts 
and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the 
United  States; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on 
the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for 
limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

1 1.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that 
use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the 
Union,  suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions; 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining,  the  militia,  and 
for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively,  the  appointment  of  the 
officers,  and  the  authority  of-  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress; 


THE   CONSTITUTION  v 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over  such 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular 
States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  government  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased 
by  the  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be, 
for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  need 
ful  buildings;  —  and 

1 8.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this 
Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  depart 
ment  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  IX.  Powers  denied  to  the  Federal  Government 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the 
Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a 
tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars 
for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  un 
less  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion 
to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue 
to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to, 
or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence  of 
appropriations  made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time 
to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States:  and  no  per 
son  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  con 
sent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of 
any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

Section  X.  Powers  denied  to  the  States 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation;  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  any 
thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill 
of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts, 
or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary 
for  executing  it's  inspection  laws:  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  arid 
imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of 
the^Treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the 
revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  ton- 


vi  APPENDIX 

nage,  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement 
or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

ARTICLE  II.  THE  EXECUTIVE,  OR  LAW-ENFORCING  POWER 

Section  I.    The  President,  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Presidential 

Electors 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years, 
and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected, 
as  follows: 

2.  Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress: 
but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or 
profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector.1  .  .  . 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and 
the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  four 
teen  years  a  resident  within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office, 
the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by 
law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation  or  inability,  both  of 
the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as 
President,  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be 
removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected.2 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services,  a  com 
pensation  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period 
for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that 
period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them.3 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  follow 
ing  oath  or  affirmation:  — 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect  and  defend  the  constitution  of  the  United  States." 

1  Clause  3  has  been  omitted  here,  since  its  provisions,  governing  the  method  of  the  selection 
by  the  electors  of  the  President  and  the  Vice-President,  have  been  changed  by  Article  XII  of 
the  Amendments,  adopted  in  1804.  See  foot-note  i,  page  230,  for  an  account  of  the  working  of 
the  original  plan. 

1  In  1886,  Congress  passed  the  Presidential  Succession  Act.    See  page  423. 

1  The  first  salary  act,  1789,  fixed  the  President's  salary  at  $25,000  a  year;  in  1873  this  was 
changed  to  $50,000,  and  in  1909  to  the  present  salary,  $75,000.  In  addition  Congress  pays_cer- 
tain  expenses  connected  with  the  White  House,  and  makes  other  allowances  for  expenses  inci 
dental  to  the  presidential  office. 


THE    CONSTITUTION  vii 

Section  II.    The  Powers  of  the  President 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when  called 
into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  1  in  each  of  the  executive  departments, 
upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices^  and  he 
shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the 
United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sen 
ate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present  concur; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall 
be  established  by  law:  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment 
of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  ^  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which 
shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  III.    The  Duties  of  the  President 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  be 
tween  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn 
them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors 
and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 
executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.   Impeachment 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  trea 
son,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III.  THE  JUDICIAL,  OR  LAW-INTERPRETING  POWER 

Section  I.   The  Federal  Courts 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme 
Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts, 
shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  re 
ceive  for  their  services,  a  compensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  in  office. 

*  The  President  is  authorized  by  Congress,  subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the  Senate,  to  ap 
point  a  cabinet,  which  consists  at  the  present  time  of  the  secretaries  of  the  following  departments: 
State,  War,  Treasury,  Navy,  Interior,  Agriculture,  and  Commerce  and  Labor,  and  of  the  Attor 
ney-General  and  the  Postmaster-General.  Each  of  these  is  at  the  head  of  an  important  executive 
branch  of  the  Government.  Cabinet  officers,  therefore,  are  assistants  to  the  President.  The 
Cabinet  as  a  whole  acts  as  an  advisory  body  to  the  President. 


viii  APPENDIX 

Section  II.   Their  Powers  and  Jurisdiction 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  aris 
ing  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to  all  cases  affecting 
ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States;  between  a 
State  and  citizens  of  another  State;  between  citizens  of  different  States; 
between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States, 
citizens  or  subjects.1 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.   In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  bot1  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by 
jury ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crime  shall-have 
been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall 
be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  III.    What  Treason  is,  and  how  it  shall  be  punished 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 
No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason, 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV.  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  STATES  AND  THE  FEDERAL 

GOVERNMENT 

Section  I.   State  Authority  to  be  recognized 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts,  re 
cords,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and 
proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  II.   Privileges  and  Immunities  of  Citizens;  Extradition 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  im 
munities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  demand 
of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up 
to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof, 

1  This  paragraph  has  been  modified  by  Article  XI  of  the  Amendments,  adopted  in  1798. 


THE    CONSTITUTION  ix 

escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation 
therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered 
up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Section  III,  Admission  of  New  States;  Congress  to  rule  Territories 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union;  but 
no  new  Stats  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States, 
or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  States  con 
cerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging 
to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed 
as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  I V.   States  to  be  protected  by  the  Nation 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  republi 
can  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion; 
and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legisla 
ture  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V.  How  THE  CONSTITUTION  is  TO  BE  AMENDED 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  neces 
sary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  applica 
tion  of  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  con 
vention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to 
all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  pro 
posed  by  the  Congress;  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner 
affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article; 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suf 
frage  in  the  Senate.1 

ARTICLE  VI.  THE  PUBLIC  DEBT,  THE  SUPREMACY  OF  THE  CONSTI 
TUTION,  THE  OATH  OF  OFFICE 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adop 
tion  of   this  Constitution,  shall   be  as  valid  against   the   United  States 
under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  b.e  made, 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in 
the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

1  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  reduce  the  number  of  Senators  from  a  State  with  a  small  di 
minishing  population. 


x  APPENDIX 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  mem 
bers  of  the  several  State  legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers 
both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by 
oath  or  affirmation,  to  support  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under 
the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII.  RATIFICATION  AND  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  CONSTI 
TUTION 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient  for 

the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 

same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States^of  America  the  twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto 
subscribed  our  names. 

Go:  WASHINGTON, 
Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 

Attest    WILLIAM  JACKSON  Secretary 


Attest: 


New  Hampshire. 
JOHN  LANGDON. 
NICHOLAS  OILMAN. 

Massachusetts. 
NATHANIEL  GORHAM, 
RUFUS  KING. 

Connecticut. 
WM:  SAML.  JOHNSON, 
ROGER  SHERMAN. 

New  York. 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 

New  Jersey. 
WTIL:  LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID  BREARLEY, 
WM.  PATERSON, 
JONA.  DAYTON. 

Pennsylvania. 
B  FRANKLIN, 
THOMAS  MIFFLIN, 
ROBT.  MORRIS, 
GEO.  CLYMER, 
THOS.  FITZ  SIMONS, 
JARED  INGERSOLL, 
JAMES  WILSON, 
Gouv  MORRIS. 


Delaware. 
GEO:  READ, 
GUNNING  BEDFORD,  jun 
JOHN  DICKINSON, 
RICHARD  BASSETT, 
JACO:  BROOM. 

Maryland. 
JAMES  MCHENRY, 
DAN  OF  ST  THOS.  JENIFER, 
DANL  CARROLL. 

Virginia. 
JOHN  BLAIR, 
JAMES  MADISON,  Jr. 

North  Carolina. 
WM:  BLOUNT, 
RICHD.  DOBBS  SPAIGHT, 
Hu  WILLIAMSON. 

South  Carolina. 

J.    RUTLEDGE, 

CHARLES  PINCKNEY, 

CHARLES  COTES  WORTH  PINCKNEY. 

PIERCE  BUTLER. 

Georgia. 
WILLIAM  FEW, 
ABR.  BALDWIN. 

WILLIAM  JACKSON,.  Secretary. 


THE   CONSTITUTION  xi 

AMENDMENTS  TO  THE   CONSTITUTION 

(The  first  ten  are  commonly  called  the  "  Bill  of  Rights  ") 

-  [The  first  ten  Amendments  were  proposed  at  the  First  Session  of  the  First 
Congress  of  the  United  States.  They  were  declared  in  force  December  15,  1791. 
These  Amendments  were  accompanied  by  the  following  explanatory  preamble 
and  resolution:  — 

CONGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  begun  and  held  at  the  city  of  New  York, 
on  Wednesday,  the  4th  of  March,  1789.  The  conventions  of  a  number  of  the 
States  having,  at  the  time  of  their  adopting  the  Constitution,  expressed  a  desire, 
in  order  to  prevent  misconstruction  or  abuse  of  its  powers,  that  further  declara 
tory  and  restrictive  clauses  should  be  added;  and  as  extending  the  ground  of 
public  confidence  in  the  Government  will  best  insure  the  beneficent  ends  of  its 
institution: 

Resolved,  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  two  thirds  of  both  houses  concurring,  That  the 
following  articles  be  proposed  to  the  legislatures  of  the  several  States,  as  amend 
ments  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  all  or  any  of  which  articles, 
when  ratified  by  three  fourths  of  said  legislatures,  to  be  valid,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  as  part  of  said  Constitution,  viz:] 

ARTICLE  I 

Freedom  of  Religion,  Speech,  and  the  Press ;  Right  of  Assembly 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  or 
of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  peti 
tion  the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II 

Right  to  keep  and  bear  Arms 

A  well  regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III 

Quartering  of  Troops,  only  by  Consent 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre 
scribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV 

Limiting  the  Right  of  Search 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated, 
and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath 
or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and 
the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 


xii  APPENDIX 

ARTICLE  V 

Guaranty  of  Trial  by  Jury;  Private  Property  to  be  respected 
No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 
service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for 
the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be 
compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  de 
prived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI 

Rights  of  Accused  Persons 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  pre 
viously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of 
the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have 
compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the 
assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE  VII 

Rules  of  the  Common  Law 

In  suits  at  Common  Law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

Excessive  Bail,  Fines,  and  Punishments  prohibited 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX 

Other  Rights  of  the  People 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be  con 
strued  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X 

Powers  reserved  to  States  and  People 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or 
to  the  people. 


THE    CONSTITUTION  xiif 

ARTICLE  XI1 

Limiting  the  Powers  of  Federal  Courts 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any 
foreign  State. 

ARTICLE  XII2 

How  the  President  and  V ice-President  shall  be  elected 
The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their 
ballots  the  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  per~ 
son  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-Presi 
dent,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign  and 
certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate;  — The  President  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted;  —  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if 
such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed; 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the 
highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  Presi 
dent,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And 
if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March 
next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  President.  The  per 
son  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the 
Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two 
highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President; 
a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number 
of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII  3 

The  Abolition  of  Slavery 

I.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment 
for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist 
within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

1  Declared  in  force  January  8,  1798.  *  Declared  in  force  September  25,  1804. 

8  Declared  in  force  December  18.  1865. 


xiv  APPENDIX 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV  l 

Section  I.   Definition  of  Citizenship 

All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State 
wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due 
process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal 
protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  II.  How  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned 

Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States  accord 
ing  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in 
each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any 
election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice- President  of  the 
United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial 
officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to 
any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  par 
ticipation  in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein 
shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens 
shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age 
in  such  State. 

Section  III.   Disability  resulting  from  Insurrection 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or  elector 
of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under 
the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an 
oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or 
as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer 
of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have 
engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  com 
fort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of 
each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  IV.  Public  Debt  of  the  United  States  valid  ;  Confederate  Debt  void 

.The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt 
or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such 
debts,  obligations  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

1  Changes  resulting  from  the  Civil  War.   Declared  in  force  July  28,  1868. 


THE  CONSTITUTION  xv 

Section  V.  Congress  to  enforce  the  Article 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV  l 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  oi 
race,  color  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE  XVI 2 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several 
States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII 3 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 
Senator  shall  have  one  vote.   The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  legislatures. 

2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies:  Provided,  That  the  legislature  of  any  State  may  em 
power  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE  XVI II4 

The  Prohibition  of  Intoxicating  Liquors 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manufacture, 
sale,  or  transportation   of    intoxicating  liquors  within,  the  importation 
thereof  into,  or  the  transportation  thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all 
territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,    for  beverage  purposes,  is 
hereby  prohibited. 

2.  The  Congress  and  several  States  have  the  concurrent  power  to  en 
force  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

1  Declared  in  force  March  30,  1870. 

2  Declared  in  force  February  25,  1913. 

3  Declared  in  force  April  8,  1913. 

4  Will  become  effective  January  16,  1920. 


Congress 
The  President 


1.  House  of  Representatives 

2.  Senate 


APPENDIX 

To  the  Pupil :  —  Learn  the  Preamble  to  the  Constitution. 

THE    PROVISIONS   OF   THE   CONSTITUTION. 

(A)  The  Constitution  provides  for  three  departments  of  the  Government 
of  the  United  States:  — 

I.  Legislative,  or 
Law-making  Power 

II.  Executive,  or 

Law-enforcing  Power 

III.  Judicial,  or  (i.  Courts 

Law-interpreting  Power    (2.  Judges 

(B)  Provisions  of  the  Constitution  relative  to  the  Congress:  »  — 

How  chosen 

Term  . . 


I.  Representatives 


Qualifications   - 


2.  Senate 


Number 

How  determined  . 
When  determined 
Presiding  officer.  . 

Sole  power 

Number 

Term 

How  chosen 

How  distributed. . 


Qualifications 


Presiding  officers 

Sole  power 


THE   CONSTITUTION 

(C)  Provisions  of  the  Constitution  relative  to  the  President :  — 

Term. 
How  chosen 

Qualifications 
The  President 

Death  or  Inability  to  act 

I  Oath  of  Office 

[  Impeachment «... 

(D)  The  Important  Powers  of  Congress:  - 

i 10 

2 ii 

3 I2 

4 13 

c 14 

6 15 

7 '6 

8 17 

9 

(E)  Important  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President:  — 

i 6 

2 , 7 

3 8 

4-  •  9-  • 

5 10.  ..,. 

(F)  How  Amendments  to  the  Constitution  may  be  made: 
Proposed  by  -!  or  Ratified  by  ...:.. 


xvu 


XV111 


APPENDIX 


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STATES  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  ORIGIN      xix 


APPENDIX  C  —  THE  STATES  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO 

ORIGIN  * 

1.  The  thirteen  original  States:  — 

Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Georgia,  Connecticut,  Massa 
chusetts,  Maryland,  South  Carolina,  New  Hampshire,  Virginia, 
New  York,  North  Carolina,  Rhode  Island.2 

2.  States  formed  directly  from  other  States:  — 

Vermont  from  territory  disputed  between  New  York  and  New 
Hampshire;  Kentucky  from  Virginia;  Maine  from  Massachusetts; 
West  Virginia  from  Virginia. 

3.  States  from  the  Northwest  Territory  (U  198)  :  - 

Ohio  Illinois  Wisconsin 

Indiana  Michigan  Minnesota,  in  part 

4.  States  from  other  territory  ceded  by  States:  — 

Tennessee,  ceded  by  North  Carolina 

Alabama,  in  part  ceded  by  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  ^ 

Mississippi,  in  part  ceded  by  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 

5.  States  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase  (^  228)  :  — 

Louisiana,  in  part  Nebraska  Montana,  in  part 

Arkansas  Iowa  Minnesota,  in  part 

Missouri  North  Dakota  Wyoming,  in  part 

Kansas,  in  part       South  Dakota  Colorado,  in  part 
Oklahoma,  in  part 

6.  States  from  the  Florida  Purchase  (If  254):  — 

Florida  Louisiana,  in  part         Mississippi,  in  part 

Alabama,  in  part 

7.  State  by  annexation  (Tf  280):  — 

Texas 

8.  States  from  territory  defined  by  treaty  with  Great  Britain  (1f  285)  :  — 

Oregon  Washington  Idaho 

Montana,  in  part    Wyoming,  in  part 

9.  States  from  Mexican  cessions  (f  290)  :  — 

California  Wyoming,  in  part         New  Mexico,  in  part 

Nevada  Colorado,  in  part          Arizona,  in  part 

Utah  Oklahoma,  in  part         Kansas,  in  part 

IO.  States  from  the  Gadsden  Purchase  (Tf  290)  :  — 
New  Mexico,  in  part      Arizona,  in  part 

i  The  States  which,  as  a  preliminary  to  admission,  have  never  been  Territories  of  the  United 
States,  are,  in  addition  to  the  original  thirteen,  Maine,  Vermont,  Kentucky,  West  Virginia. 
Texas,  and  California. 

1  Arranged  in  order  of  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX  D  —  I.  A  TABLE  OF  THE  STATES 


Year 

Name 

Area  !n 
Square 
Miles 
(land  and 
water) 

Population 
1910 

Delega 
tion  in 
Con 
gress 

f    1787 

Delaware     ...    . 

2  170 

2O2  "^22 

1 

1787 

Pennsylvania  

4^  126 

7  66"^  III 

•7» 

'-*- 

1787 

New  Jersey  

8  224 

2  ^7  l67 

0° 

IJ. 

1788 

Georgia  

5Q,26S 

2  609  121 

X4- 
IA. 

to 

1788 

Connecticut  

4  .o6s 

I  114  7^6 

7' 

0 

1788 

Massachusetts 

8  266 

3^66  A  1  6 

18 

0, 

1788  • 

Maryland        

12  1^7 

I  2QC(  ld.6 

g 

1 

1788 
1788 

South  Carolina  
New  Hampshire  

30,989 
0,11.1 

1,515400 

4^O  S72 

9 

? 

1788 

Virginia 

42  627 

2  06  1  6l2 

12 

a 

1788 

New  York 

40  2O4 

9T  T  -?    f\TA 

A  ^ 

•8 

I78q 

North  Carolina  

C2  426 

2  2O6  287 

4D 
12 

< 

1    1790 

Rhode  Island  

1,248 

542,610 

r     1  7Q  I 

Vermont 

9c64 

-7CC    QC5 

1  702 

Kentucky 

4O  S08 

2  280  QO^ 

• 
1  1 

1706 

Tennessee..  .            

42  O22 

2  184  780 

1o 
1  2 

1801 

Ohio  

41  O4O 

4  767  121 

2/1 

1812 

Louisiana  

48  ^06 

I  656  388 

-^•+ 
IO 

1816 

Indiana  

^6  ^4 

2  700  876 

T  S 

1817 

Mississippi  

46  86^ 

1,707.1  14 

1D 
IO 

1818 

Illinois 

*,666* 

c  6^8  ^oi 

2Q 

1819 

Alabama 

CT    QQ8 

2  1^8  OQ'? 

•*y 
12 

1820 

Maine 

•7-7   O4O 

7d.2  ^71 

6 

1821 

Missouri  

60  42O 

3201  T.T.Z 

18 

1816 

Arkansas  

Cl  'I'T.C 

I.S74  440 

c 

18^7 

Michigan 

C7  080 

2  8lO  I7"2. 

T  r 

*£ 

1845 

Florida  

58,666 

7^2,6l9 

*D 

6 

^ 

l8A  «N 

Texas  

265  806 

-7  806  ^42 

2O 

<u 

1846 

Iowa  

56.147 

2  224  771 

T-J 

•£ 

1848 

\Visconsin 

56066 

2  111  86O 

T  1 

5  ; 

I85O 

California            

ic8  207 

2  '5.77  ^4O 

»O 

1  1 

c 

i8s8 

Minnesota  

84  682 

2  O7^  7O8 

1o 

12 

*o 

iuju 

TgCQ 

Oregon 

06  600 

672  76^ 

•4-J 

1861 

Kansas 

82  i=;8 

I6QO  Q4Q 

IO 

*p 

1863 

West  Virginia  

24  I7O 

I  221  1  19 

8 

-o 

1864 

Nevada      

no  690 

81  87^ 

< 

1867 

Nebraska 

77  C2O 

I  192  214 

8 

1876 

Colorado             

IO^  Q48 

7QQ  O2A. 

6 

1889 
1889 

North  Dakota  
South  Dakota 

70,837 

77  6l  C 

577,056 

cS-j  «»« 

5 

1889 

Mfontana 

Id.6  QQ7 

"^76  O^"2. 

1889 

\Vashington            

60  127 

1IAI  QQO 

7 

1890 

Idaho       

83  888 

•22^  ^04 

1890 

^^yoming  

07,014. 

14^  06^ 

1806 

Utah    

84,000 

'J,7'71'7CI 

4. 

IQO7 

Oklahoma 

7O  O^7 

i  6^7  ms  ' 

IO 

IQI2 

New  Mexico       

122  6^4     ' 

-727  ^OI 

1912 

Arizona                

1  1  'J  oc6 

204.,'l^td. 

-i 

TERRITORIES  AND  INSULAR  POSSESSIONS       xxi 

THE  DELEGATION   IN   CONGRESS 

Every  ten  years,  after  the  Federal  census  is  taken,  Congress  decides  how 
many  Representatives  there  shall  be  from  each  State  according  to  a  certain 
fixed  ratio.  In  August,  1911,  the  ratio  for  the  next  ten  years  was  fixed  at  one 
Representative  to  each  211,877  inhabitants  (but  States  having  a  population  of 
less  than  that  number  are  given  one  Representative).  This  establishes  the 
present  total  number  of  Representatives  at  435.  A  State's  "Delegation  in  Con 
gress"  consists  of  its  proportionate  number  of  Representatives  and  its  2  Sena 
tors.  The  number  of  Presidential  Electors  from  each  State  is  the  same  as  the 
number  of  its  Delegation.  The  total  of  Presidential  Electors  for  1912,  there 
fore,  is  531  (see  opposite  page  for  the  Delegation  of  each  State). 


II.  TERRITORIES  AND   INSULAR   POSSESSIONS 


Year  Organized 

Name 

Area 

Population,  1910 

1791 
1868 

District  of  Columbia  
Alaska      

60 
S90.884 

331,069 
64,^6 

IQOO 

Hawaii  

6.44Q 

191  ,909 

1  9OO 

Porto  Rico    

7.4-?^ 

I,  Il8,OI2 

1  9O2 

Philippines  

115,026 

7,  6^,426  l 

Guam,  estimated  
Tutuila  group,  Samoa,  est. 
Panama  Canal  Zone  est.  .  . 
Virgin  Islands                   . 

2IO 

77 
436 

I  ^O 

9,000 
6,100 
50,000 

T.T.  QOO 

THE   FORM   OF  GOVERNMENT 

(1)  The  District  of  Columbia.    The  residents  have  no  vote  in  the  election  of 
either  local  or  national  officials,  nor  are  they  represented  in  Congress  by  a 
Delegate.   Congress  itself  acts  as  the  local  legislature  for  the  District,  and 
administrative  powers  are  vested  in  a  board  of  three  Commissioners  ap 
pointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate. 

(2)  Alaska.    This  Territory  is  still  in  the  first  stage  of  Territorial  development, 
having  no  legislative  body.  Its  officials  are  appointed  by  the  President ,  and 
it  is  represented  in  the  Federal  House  of  Representatives  by  a  Territorial 
Delegate  who  is  elected  by  the  people;  he  may  debate  in  the  House,  but 
not  vote. 

(3)  Hawaii.    This  is  a  regular  Territory,  with  a  Governor  appointed  by  the 
President  and  a  legislature  of  two  houses.   The  people  are  represented  in 
the  Federal  House  of  Representatives  by  a  Territorial  Delegate,  who  can 
debate  but  not  vote.    The  Territory  takes  no  part  in  the  election  of  the 
President. 

(4)  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines.    These  are  dependencies,  not  Territories. 
Their  local  affairs  are  administered  by  a  legislature  of  two  houses.   They 
are  represented  in  the  United  States  by  Resident  Commissioners  elected 
by  the  legislatures — one  for  Porto  Rico,  two  for  the  Philippines.   The  de 
pendencies,  of  course,  take  no  part  in  the  election  of  the  President. 

(5)  Minor  dependencies.    Guam  and  the  Tutuila  group,  Samoa,  are  under  the 
control   of   naval  officers   in  command  of   the  naval  stations;  while  our 
smaller  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  require  no  government,  being  practi- 

1  The  figures  for  the  Philippines  are  from  the  official  census  taken  in  1903. 


XXII 


APPENDIX 


cally  uninhabited.  The  Panama  Canal  Zone  is  governed  by  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  under  the  supervision  of  the  War  Department.  The 
Virgin  Islands  are  at  present  governed  by  an  officer  of  the  navy,  appointed 
by  the  President.  A  permanent  form  of  government  is  being  worked  out. 


APPENDIX    E  —  TERRITORIAL   GROWTH    OF  THE    UNITED 
STATES,    1783-1918 


Territorial  Division 

Year 
Acquired 

Area  added. 
Square  miles 

Purchase  price 

Ceded  by 

Louisiana  Purchase  .  .  . 
Florida  

1803 
l8lQ 

827,987 

72  101 

$15,000,000 
6  489  7681 

France  

Texas  

"^845 

^89.166 

Annexed 

Oregon  Territory   

i8j6 

286   'vll 

2 

Mexican  cession     
Purchase  from  Texas  .  . 
Gadsden  Purchase  
Alaska 

1848 
1850 

1853 
1867 

529,189 

4 
29,671 

CQO  88.1 

i8,25o,ooo3 

10,000,000 

10,000,000 

Mexico 
Texas 
Mexico 

Hawaii       . 
Porto  Rico  

1898 
1800 

6,449 

7  Al^ 

Annexed 

Spain 

Guam        

l8qq 

2IO 

Philippines  
Tutuila  Group,  Samoa  . 

1899 
1899 

115,026 

77 

20,000,000 

Spain 
Great  Britain 

Panama  Canal  Zone  .  .  . 
Virgin  Islands  

J904 
1917 

436 
150 

10,000,000 
25,000,000 

and  Germany 
Panama 
Denmark 

Total  

2,851,322 

$121,939,768 

1  Includes  interest  payments. 

2  Our  title  to  the  Oregon  territory  was  contested   by  Great  Britain  from  1818  to  1846,  during 
which  years  the  two  nations  jointly  occupied  the  region. 

3  Of  which  53,250,000  was  in  payment  of  claims  of  American  citizens  against  Mexico. 

4  Area  purchased  from  Texas  amounting  to  123,784  square  miles  is  not  included  in  the  column 
of  area  added,  because  it  became  a  part  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  with  the  admission  of 
Texas. 


POPULATION 


xxin 


APPENDIX  F  — POPULATION 

I    POPULATION   DURING  THE   COLONIAL   PERIOD   AND 
AT  THE  FIRST   UNITED   STATES  CENSUS 

The  figures  of  population  for  the  colonies  which  became  the  thirteen  original  States  are  taken 
from  estimates  prepared  by  the  Census  Bureau.     The  first  U.  S.  census  was  taken  in  1790. 


1650 

1700 

1750 

1790 

Virginia.           

17,000 

72,000 

275,000 

747,610 

Massachusetts           

18,000 

70,000 

180,000 

378,787 

New  Hampshire        

1,400 

6,000 

3  1  ,000 

141,885 

New  York              

3,000 

19,000 

80,000 

340,120 

Delaware  *          

59,096 

6,000 

24,000 

100  ooo 

2^7  Q46 

Maryland 

4-.SOO 

3  1  ,000 

I  T>7  OOO 

•2IQ   728 

Rhode  Island 

800 

6,000 

T.S.OOO 

68  825 

North  Carolina 

S,ooo 

80,000 

707    7KI 

New  Jersey 

14,000 

66,000 

184.,  I^Q 

South  Carolina  
Pennsylvania 

8,000 
20,000 

68,000 
150,000 

249,073 
4-24,777 

Georgia  

5,000 

82,548 

Vermont  
Kentucky  
Tennessee  
Maine  2.  . 

;;;; 

.... 

85,425 
73,677 
35-961 
06,54.0 

3  During  the  Colonial  Period  the  population  of  Delaware  was  included  with  that  of  Pennsyl- 

»  Maine  was  a  part  of  Massachusetts  until  admitted  as  a  State  in  1820.  At  the  time  of  the 
First  Census  the  population  of  Maine  as  a  "  District  "  was  taken  separately. 


II.  TOTAL  AND  URBAN  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Census 
Years 

Total 

Population 

Urban 
Population  l 

Census 

Years 

Total 

Population 

Urban 
Population  l 

1790 

1800 
1810 
1820 
1830 
1840 
1850 

3,929,214 

5,308,483 
7,239,88! 

9,638,453 
12,866,020 
17,069,453 
23,191,876 

131,472 
210,873 
356,920 

475,135 
864,509 

1,453,994 
2,897,586 

1860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 

31,443,321 
38,558,371 
50,155,783 
62,947,714 

75,994,575 
91,972,2662 

5,072,256 
8,071,875. 
14,772,438 
22,720,223 
30,797,185 
42,623,383 

1  By  "  urban  population  "  is  meant  the  total  number  of  inhabitants  in  places  of  over  2500 
population. 

*  This  total  is  made  up  of  five  elements:  (a)  native  whites  of  native  parentage,  49,488,441; 
(b)  foreign  whites  or  of  foreign  parentage,  32,244,246;  (c)  negroes  or  of  negro  descent,  9,828,294; 
(d)  Indians,  265.683;  (e)  Asiatics,  145,602.  Element  (a)  comprises  more  than  half  the  total  popu 
lation  in  29  States;  element  (b),  in  13  States  —  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  Rhode  Island,  Wis 
consin,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  South  Dakota.  Mon 
tana,  Utah,  and  Illinois;  element  (c)  in  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi.  In  Florida,  element  (a) 
is  over  49  per  cent  of  the  total  population;  and  in  Louisiana,  over  46  per  cent.  In  Nevada,  ele 
ment  (b)  is  over  47  per  cent;  and  in  Arizona,  over  45  per  cent. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  AND 

INDEX  FOR  OUTLINES,  SUMMARIES 

AND  REVIEWS 

BOTH  the  Table  of  Contents  and  the  Index  will  be  found  valuable  for  outlines 
and  reviews. 

The  Table  of  Contents  (pages  v-xiv)  may  be  used  by  the  pupil  as  a  guide  in  his 
study  of  a  lesson  or  by  the  class  and  teacher  working  together.  Each  pupil  should 
frequently  make  for  himself  an  outline  or  a  summary  of  a  period  after  class  discus 
sion  has  emphasized  important  phases.  The  teacher  will  also  find  the  Table  of  Con 
tents  very  helpful  in  assigning  lessons. 

The  Index  may  be  used  for  reviews  in  several  ways,  of  which  two  are  suggested : 

(1)  Important  subjects  may  be  assigned  alphabetically  as  they  are  found  in  the 
Index,  or  chronologically,  or  topically,  as  desired.    Have  the  class  itself  determine, 
yzr^what  is  already  known  about  each  subject,  and,  second,  what  subjects  are 
relatively  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  special  study  of  them.    These  may  be 
assigned  to  the  class  as  a  whole  or  to  individual  members  who  will  report  to  the 
class  on  them.  In  reporting  on  these  subjects,  encourage  pupils  to  put  brief  outlines 
on  the  board  as  a  guide  for  the  discussion. 

(2)  Related  topics  may  be  looked  up  as  an  aid  to  the  understanding  of  current 
events.   It  is  to  be  hoped,  and  it  may  be  assumed,  that  the  course  in  United  States 
History  has  been  accompanied  by  a  discussion  of  current  events,  i.e.,  of  history  in 
the  making.   In  this  history,  in  the  midst  of  which  they  have  been  living,  will  be 
found  the  interests  which  will  produce  the  questioning  mind  to  guide  the  pupils  in 
their  review.     Let  them,  with  the  teacher's  help,  formulate  their  own  questions, 
questions  that  relate  to  the  vital  present.    Several  such  are  here  suggested. 

1.  What  is  the  history  of  our  government's  relation  to  shipbuilding  and  ship 
control? 

2.  What  has  been  the  history  of  women  in  this  country? 

3.  What  has  been  the  history  of  transportation  in  our  country? 

Let  us  briefly  consider  how  the  first  question  may  be  studied  with  the  Index  as 
a  guide. 

1.  We  shall  naturally  turn  to  some  significant  word  relating  to  our  question,  say 
the  word  ships.  There  we  find  references  that  lead  to  a  study  of  the  development  or 
evolution  of  ships.   This  phase  of  the  subject  does  not  interest  us  now  and  we  pass 
along  to  the  subheading,  "in  colonial  times."    These  and  the  following  references 
we  must  look  up,  but  we  must  keep  in  mind  our  question  or  problem,  namely,  "Our 
government's  relation  to  ships,"  discarding  all  that  does  not  bear  on  this. 

2.  Having  exhausted  the  references  under  "ships,"  we  note  that  we  are  directed 
to  "see  also  Navy,  etc."  We  should  now  turn  to  this  word  and  follow  the  references 
under  it. 

3.  But  there  are  other  guiding  words  relating  to  our  question.  The  pupils  should 
themselves  think  of  suggesting  words  and  make  a  list  of  them.  Every  one  does  this 
who  investigates  a  subject.    The  list  the  pupils  make  will  include,  for  instance, 
shipbuilding,  commerce,  trade,  etc.    Each  of  these  words  should  be  looked  up  in  the 
Index,  and  the  references  consulted. 

Detailed  outlines  or  extended  exposition  of  the  possibilities  that  lie  in  this  kind  of 
review  and  this  kind  of  use  of  the  Index,  are  unnecessary,  but  two  illustrations  may 
be  cited.  Events  so  widely  separated  as  the  Spanish  Armada  and  the  Monitor- 
Merrimac  episodes  emphasize  the  value  in  a  nation  of  the  initiative  of  private  citi 
zens.  In  a  democracy  everything  must  not  be  left  to  the  government.  That  is  only 
the  instrument  which  the  people  use.  Again  under  " shipbuilding"  the  first  reference 
reveals  one  of  the  fundamental  reasons  for  the  government  control  of  shipping,  a 
reason  that  has  been  so  clearly  in  evidence  in  the  present  national  crisis. 


INDEX 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


a  as  in  fat 

a  as  in  Persia 

o  as  in  not 

a  as  in  mute 

G  German  as  in  Ham 

a  as  in  fate 

e  as  in  met 

5  as  in  note 

u  as  in  pull 

burg 

a  as  in  far 

e  as  in  mete 

6  as  in  move 

ii  German  ii, 

H  Spanish  G  before  e 

a  as  in  fall 

e  as  in  her 

6  as  in  nor 

French  u 

andi 

a  as  in  ask 

e  as  in  prudent 

o  as  in  valor 

n  as  in  pound 

TH  as  in  them 

a  as  in  fare 

i  as  in  pin 

9  as  in  abrogate 

h  French  nasal 

ch  German  ach 

a  as  in  errant 

I  as  in  pine 

u  as  in  tub 

izing  n 

"  secondary  accent 

ABOLITIONISTS,  274,  275,  314- 
Acadians,  removed  by  English,  127. 
Adams,  John,  137,  144,  14?,  i5y;  Vice-Presi 
dent,  203;  President,  216,  225-228. 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  President,  264-269;  in 

Congress,  275,  333;  biography,  264. 
Adams,  Samuel,  patriot,  141,  143,  144.  T45;  in 
Continental  Congress,  147;  arrest  attempted, 
151-153;  urges  independence,  158,  163. 
Addams,  Jane,  477- 
Africa,  i,  3~5,  7,  109. 

Agriculture,  in  colonial  times,  109;  in  1790, 
210;  in  1860,  329.  See  also  Lands  and  Planta 
tion  System. 

Aguinaldo  (a-ge-nal'do) ,  E.,  Filipino  leader,  447. 
Airplanes,  476,  487. 

Alabama,  part  of  Florida,   186,   206;  settled, 

258;  admission  to  Union,  259;  slave  State, 

259,  3io;  cotton  State,   211;  secedes,  337; 

readmission,  397. 

Alabama,  Confederate  cruiser,  355;  claims  for, 

403,  404.     See  also  Arbitration. 
Alamo  (a'la-mo),  massacre  at,  289. 
Alaska,  fur  trade  in,   261;  purchase  of,  400, 
434,  449;  southern  boundary,  293,  294;  con 
servation  in,  461. 

Albany    (N.    Y.),    Hudson    at,    29;    origin    of 
name,  98;  founded,  94;  transportation  ter 
minal,  237,  264-266;  on  map,  98. 
Albany  Plan  of  Union,  125,  126. 
Aldrich,  Nelson  W.,  tariff  bill,  465,  473. 
Algeria  (al-je'ri-a),  hostilities  with,  239. 
Algonquian    (al-gon'ki-an)    Indians,   described, 

40;  relations  to  colonists,  32-34,  95- 
Alien  and  Sedition  laws,  226,  227,  230,  332 
Allegheny    (al'lf-gen-i)     Mts.,    traders    cross, 

108;  railroads,  267,  268;  settlers  in,  343. 
Allegheny  River,  forts  on,  124. 
Allen,  Ethan,  captures  Ticonderoga,  154. 
America,  origin  of  name,  17,  18;  found  to  be  a 

continent,  134. 

American  Desert,  300;  transformed,  406. 
Amundsen,  Capt.  Roald,  475. 


Amusements,  in  colonial  times,   114,    115;  at 

present,  478. 

Anaesthetics  (an-es-thet'iks) ,  discovered,  328. 
Anarchists,  in  United  States,  421. 
Anderson,    Maj.    R.,    at    Fort    Sumter,    340, 

341- 

Andre  (an'dra),  Maj.  John,  executed,  180. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  governs  New  England, 
86,  87,  90;  New  York,  98;  New  Jersey,  99. 

Annapolis  (Md.),  founded,  68;  during  Revo 
lution,  146,  187,  188;  convention  at,  199; 
naval  academy,  181;  on  map,  71. 

Annapolis  Royal  (N.  S.).  See  Port  Royal. 

Anti-Federalists,  oppose  Constitution,  202, 
213;  favor  "strict  construction,"  2*5,  331. 

Antietam  (an-te'tam),  battle  at,  356,  389. 

Appalachian  Mts.,  forest  reserve,  461. 

Appomattox  (ap-o-mat'oks)  Court  House, 
surrender  at,  380-382,  390;  on  map,  350. 

Arbitration,  of  Alabama  claims,  403,  404; 
Bering  Sea  dispute,  434,  435;  of  labor  dis 
putes,  458;  international,  456,  467;  court  for, 
451.  See  also  Peace  Movement  and  Treaties. 

Arizona,  explored  by  Coronado,  23;  Indians  of, 
40;  part  of  Mexican  Purchase,  301;  admis 
sion  to  Union,  469;  irrigation  in,  406. 

Arkansas  (ar'kan-sa),  in  Louisiana  Purchase, 
233;  American  Desert,  300;  a  slave  State, 
310;  secedes,  342;  during  Civil  War,  368, 
390;  readmission,  397. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  inventor,  210. 

Armada  (ar-ma'da),  attacks  England,  27,  50. 

Arnold,  Gen.  Benedict,  march  to  Canada,  156; 
treason,  179,  180,  190;  in  Connecticut,  184. 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  President,  415-419. 

Ashburton,  Lord,  negotiates  treaty,  228,  229. 

Asia,  early  trade  with  Europe,  1-3,  17;  search 
for  route  to,  3,  5-7,  56;  commerce,  56. 

Astoria  (Ore.),  founded,  236,  294. 

Astrolabe  (as'tro-labe) ,  invented,  5. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  feared  by  mariners,  3-6;  crossed 
by  Columbus,  10-14;  by  Cabots,  17,  28,  51; 
by  steamships,  238,  330;  cable,  399,  400. 


XXVI 


INDEX 


Austin,  Stephen  F.f  Texas  settler,  289. 

Australia,  commerce  with,  319,  407. 

Australian  ballot,  466. 

Austria,  attacks  Servia,  483. 

Automobiles,  475- 

Azores  Islands,  Portuguese  at,  4;  on  map,  3. 

BACON,  Nathaniel,  rebellion,  64,  65. 

Bahama  (ba-ha'ma)  Islands,  Columbus  at, 
ii,  12,  47;  on  map,  124. 

Balboa  (bal-bo'a),  Vasco  Nunez,  19,  47- 

Ballot  reform,  421,  422,  466. 

Baltimore,  Cecil  Calvert,  Lord,  68,  70,  105. 

Baltimore,  George  Calvert,  Lord,  68. 

Baltimore  (Md.).  founded,  68;  in  1790,  206; 
transportation  terminus,  258,  266,  267,  326; 
in  War  of  18'  2,  250,  252;  in  Civil  War,  350; 
first  telegraph,  291-293;  fire,  459. 

Banks,  issue  bills,  282-284;  aid  Union,  344; 
United  States  Bank,  219,  279,  333;  federal 
reserve,  479- 

Barre,  Col.  Isaac,  138. 

Barry,  Capt.  John,  naval  officer,  180,  190. 

Bay  of  Fundy,  settlement  on,  31,  55. 

Belgium,  invaded,  483;  oppressed,  484. 

Bell,  A.  G.,  invents  telephone,  475. 

Bennington,  battle  of,  172;  on  map,  166. 

Bering  (be'ring)  Sea,  American  rights  in,  434. 

Berkeley  (berk-li),  Sir  John,  99. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  64,  65. 

Bienville  (byari-veT),  Jacques  le  Moyne,  38. 

Biloxi  (Miss.),  founded  by  French,  38. 

Bismarck  (N.  Dak.),  explorers  at,  235. 

Blackstone,  William,  Boston  colonist,  82. 

Bladensburg  (Md.),  battle  near,  250. 

Blockade,  during  Civil  War,  351-353,  357,  362, 
368,  376,  377,  390;  blockade  running,  352, 
353;  map  of,  352;  blockade  of  Cuban  coast, 
443;  during  World  War,  487,  488. 

Blockhouses,  described,  112. 

Blue  Ridge,  settlers  on,  343- 

Bolsheviki,  502. 

Bon  Homme  Richard  (bo-nom'-re-sharO ,  181. 

Boone,  Daniel,  in  Braddock's  army,  127;  ex 
plores  Kentucky,  178;  makes  road,  207; 
becomes  Spanish  citizen,  232. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  assassin,  382. 

Boston  (Mass.),  settled,  82;  in  colonial  times, 
87,  91^  109;  during  Revolution,  143-147, 
151-157,  167;  in  1790,  206,  207;  stage  route 
to.  116;  newspapers,  114,  256,  274;  temper 
ance  reform,  268;  immigrants,  258;  anti-tax 
hand-bill,  142;  on  map,  87. 

Boundaries  of  United  States,  in  1790,  206; 
northeast,  288,  289;  northwest,  262,  289, 
296,  404;  southwest,  297. 

Bowling  (bo'ling)  Green  (Ky.),  358. 

Braddock,  Gen.  Edward,  defeat  of,  127;  builds 
road,  254. 

Bradford,  William,  80. 

Bragg,  Gen.  Braxton,  in  Civil  War,  371. 

Brandywine  Creek,  battle  on,  172,  173,  256. 

Bright,  John,  English  statesman,  400. 


British  Columbia,  boundaries,  262. 

British  Guiana,  boundary,  435. 

Brooklyn  (N.  Y.),  in  Revolution,  168,  bridges, 

419;  navy  yard,  458;  annexed  to  New  York, 

438. 

Brown,  John,  326,  327,  333. 
Brown  University,  founded,  114. 
Bryan,  William  J.,  Democratic  leader,  452,  464; 

Secretary  of  State,  474. 
Bryce,  James,  485. 
Buchanan,    James,    President,    321-327,    336, 

338-340;  biography,  321. 
Buffalo  (N.  Y.),  transportation  terminus,  264- 

268,  326;   mayor,  420;  exposition  at,  452, 

453;  McKinley  assassinated  at,  453. 
Buildings:  Indian  dwellings,  42,  43;  made  by 

colonists,  83,  96,  in,  112;  Dutch  houses,  96, 

97;  blockhouses,  34,  112;  schoolhouses,  209; 

pioneer  log-cabins,  207,  287,  323;  Oklahoma 

shanties,  428;  sky  scrapers,  438. 
Bull  Run,  first  battle  at,  350,  351;  second  bat 
tle,  356,  389;  on  map,  350. 
Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  143,  154-156,  190,  264; 

anniversary,  263;  monument,  156,  263. 
Burgoyne   (ber-goin'),   Gen.  John,  surrenders 

to  Americans,  171,  172,  177,  190. 
Burke,  Edmund,  friendly  to  colonists,  136,  141. 

148,  190. 

Burnside,  Gen.  Ambrose  E.,  356. 
Burr,  Aaron,  Vice- President,   230;  duel  with 

Hamilton,  200;  conspiracy  of,  233,  234. 

CABINET,  423;  Washington's,  216. 

Cable.  See  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and 
Telegraph. 

Cabot  (kab'ot),  John,  discovers  North  Amer 
ica,  17,  47,  55,  97- 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  explorer,  17,  47,  97. 

Cahokia  (111.),  Indian  mounds  at,  42;  cap 
tured  by  G.  R.  Clark,  178;  on  map,  179. 

Calhoun  (kal-hon'),  John  C.,  enters  Congress, 
243;  champions  slavery,  276,  301,  312,  333; 
death,  315;  biography  and  portrait,  276. 

California,  Spanish  in,  24;  Drake  visits,  ?7, 
28;  Russians  in,  261;  part  of  Mexico,  293, 
298,  300,  301;  conquest  of,  300;  gold  found 
in,  302-305;  admission  to  Union,  305,  310, 
311;  trail  to,  304,  405;  oil  found  in,  325;  com 
merce,  319;  equal  suffrage  in,  429. 

Calvert,  Leonard,  governor  of  Maryland,  68. 

Cambridge  (Mass.),  settled,  82;  college  at,  84; 
during  Revolution,  157,  175;  on  map,  87. 

Camden,  battle  of,  182;  on  map,  166. 

Canada,  Indians  of,  40;  belongs  to  France,  95, 
123;  England,  156,  ^33;  during  Revolution, 
156,  167;  War  of  1812,  243-246,  249,  332; 
boundaries,  134,  186,  262,  288,  289,  404; 
postage  to,  417.  See  also  New  France. 

Canals,  foster  commerce,  271;  built  by  States, 
284.  See  also  Erie  Canal. 

Canary  Islands,  Portuguese  at,  4;  Columbus, 
10,  i: :;  on  map,  3. 

Canonicus  (ka-non'i-kus),  Indian  chief,  80. 


INDEX 


XXVll 


Cape  Breton   (brit'on)    Island,   Cabot  at,   17; 

fort  on,  121 ;  on  map,  122. 
Cape  Cod,  named,  5C-   explored,  17;  Pilgrims 

at,  78;  on  map,  87. 
•Cape  Horn,  route  via,  294,  303,  444- 
Cape   of   Good    Hope,    discovered,    4,    5,    i~; 

Drake  at,  28. 
Cape  Verd  Islands,  Portuguese  at,  4;  Cervera's 

fleet  at,  443,  444;  on  map,  3. 
Caravans,  in  Oriental  trade,  2,  17;  with  Coro- 
nado,  22;  on  National  Road,  254,  257;  on 
Oregon  trail,  299;  on  California  trail,  304. 
Carnegie,  Andrew,  429,  451. 
Carolina,    colonized,    70,    71;    Spanish    trade 
with,    72;    fur    trade,    108;    products,   108; 
piracy  in,  117.   See  also  North  Carolina  and 
South  Carolina. 

Carson  (kar'son),  Christopher,  298,  299. 
Carteret  (kar'ter-et) ,  Sir  George,  99- 
Carteret,  Philip,  governor  of  New  Jersey,  99- 
Cartier     (kar-tya'),     Jacques,     discovers     St. 

Lawrence  River,  31,  48. 

Catholics,  first  English  service  in  America,  68; 
persecuted,  70;  debarred  from  Georgia,  72. 
See  also  Missions. 

Cavaliers  (kav-a-lers'),  in  Virginia,  63. 
Cayuga  (ka-yo'ga)  Indians,  Iroquois  tribe,  40. 
Celoron    (sal-o-ron') ,    Pierre  Joseph,  on  Ohio 

River,  124. 

Central  America,  revolts  from  Spain,  261,  439; 
in  Pan  American  Union,  429;  relations  with 
United  States,  451. 

Cervera  (thar-va'ra) ,  Admiral  Pascnal,  Span 
ish  commander,  443;  defeat  of,  444. 
Champlain  (sham-plan'),  Samuel  de,  31-33- 
Chancellorsville  (Va.),  battle  of,  365,  366,  389; 

on  map,  350. 
Charities,  in  1790,  211. 

Charles  I,  King  of  England,  63;  colony  named 
for,  70;  grants  land,  68;  trouble  with  Par 
liament,  91;  beheaded,  63,  65,  89. 
Charles  II,  King  of  England,  64,  65;  exiled, 
99;  hunts  regicides,  89,  90;  land  grants,  70, 
97,  98,  100,  105;  cancels  charter,  86. 
Charleston    (S.    C.),    settled,    70;    in   colonial 
times,  115;  in  Revolution,  146,  158;  in  Civil 
War,  340;  port,  277,  278,  417;  on  map,  71. 
Charlestown  (Mass.),  settled,  82;  records,  84; 
in  Revolution,  152,  154;  navy  yard  at,  246; 
on  map,  151. 
Charter  colonies,  denned,  63;  Connecticut  and 

Rhode  Island,  89,  90. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  anti-slavery  leader,  317. 
Chatham,  Lord.  See  William  Pitt. 
Chattanooga  (Tenn.),  origin  of  name,  43;  in 

Civil  War,  370-372,  390;  on  map,  368. 
Cherokee  Indians,  40. 
Chesapeake    Bay,    in   colonial   times,    56;     in 
Revolution,  173,  184;  in  War  of  1812,  249, 
250;  in  Civil  War,  347. 

Chicago,  origin  of  name,  42;  portage  at,  36; 
massacre,  245;  great  fire,  409;  labor  troubles, 
42i,433;Douglasat,3i7;World'sFair,43i,432. 


Chickamauga,  battle  of,  37i,  39O. 
Chickasaw  Indians,  40. 

China,  early  trade  with  Europe,   1-3;  Marco 
Polo  in,  6;  famine,  446;  Boxer  rebellion,  449- 
Chinese,  early  inventions  by,  5;  exclusion  of, 
408;  educated  in  United  States,  450,  451;  in 
Philippines,  447;  in  Hawaii,  448. 
Chippewa  Indians,  40. 
Choctaw  Indians,  40. 
Christian  Commission,  work  of,  387. 
Christina   (kris-te'na) ,  Queen  of  Sweden,  105. 
"Cibola"  (sib'a-la),  sought  by  Spanish,  22. 
Cities,  in  1790,  206;  in  North,  270;  enlarged 
by  immigration,   329,   33o;   recent  growth, 
307,  438,  470,  476,  477- 
Civil  Rights  Act,  in  Johnson's  Administration, 

396. 

Civil  service  reform,  274,  469;  under  Arthur, 
415-417;    commissioner  for,   454.    See  also 
Spoils  System. 
Civil  War.  See  Wars:  Civil. 
Clark,  Champ,  Speaker  of  the  House,  465. 
Clark,  Gen.  George  Rogers,  conquers  North 
west,  178,  179,  190. 

Clay,  Henry,  enters  Congress,  243;  proposes 
compromises,  260,  278,  311-313;  presidential 
candidate,  264;  on  slavery,  333;  death,  315; 
biography  and  portrait,  260. 
Clermont,  steamboat,  237,  333- 
Cleveland,   Grover,   President,   420-425,   431 

436,  440;  biography  and  portrait,  420. 
Clinton,  DeWitt,  plans  Erie  Canal,  264. 
Clinton,  Gen.  Henry,  British  officer,  182,  184. 
Coal,  mined  in  colonies,  109;  in  South,  310, 

418. 

Cold  Harbor  (Va.),  battle  of,  373,  39O. 
Colonial  life,  described,  107-119- 
Colonization,  Spanish,  19,  22,  23;  French,  38, 
55;  early  English  efforts,  50-52;  first  per 
manent,  54-66;  in  Maryland,  68-70;  Caro 
lina,  70,  71;  New  England,  75~92;  Middle 
Colonies,  94-104;  Georgia,  71-73;  types  of, 
63;  review,  134. 

Colorado,  explored  by  Pike,  236,  237;  by  Fre 
mont,  300;  in  Louisiana  Purchase,  233;  Mex 
ican,  301;  claimed  by  Texas,   297;  part  of 
Kansas,  31?;  gold  found  in,  324.  325;  admis 
sion,  406;  equal  suffrage  in,  429. 
Columbia  College,  founded,  114. 
Columbia  River,  discovered,  293,  294;  explored. 
234-236,  299,  462;  post  on,  294;  settlers,  295 
Columbus,  Christopher,  early  life,  i ;  first  voy 
age,  4,  9-13,  47;  other  voyages,  13,  14.  J7 
death,    14,    15;    discovery    celebrated,   43 1. 
names  in  honor  of,  18;  biography,  7. 
Commerce,  between  Europe  and  Asia,  1-4;  in 
colonial   times,    107-110,    134.    !39;    during 
Confederation,    195-197,    199,    201,   213;   in 
Washington's  Administration,  223;  in  Jeffer 
son's,  221,  222,  231,  238,  239;  in  Madison's, 
241,  242;  after  War  of  1812,  253,  255,  270, 
271;  in  1800,  307;  aided  by  canals,  264,  265, 
455;    recent   growth,   437,   438;   on    Pacific 


XXV111 


INDEX 


Slope,  407,  450.    See  also  Interstate  Com 
merce  Act. 

Communism,  in  Virginia,  57. 

Compass,  invented,  5- 

Compromises:  of  the  Constitution,  200,  213; 
on  location  of  capital,  217,  218;  Missouri, 
260,  261,  311,  312,  333!  on  tariff  (1833), 
278,  279,  333;  of  1850,  3H-3I3,  3i6,  333- 

Concord  (Mass.),  battle  at,  151-153,  190. 

Confederacy,  organized,  337;  officials,  338; 
reizes  Federal  property,  338,  339;  commis 
sioners,  354,  355;  divided,  378. 

Confederation,  Articles  of,  192-197,  213. 

Congress,  Stamp  Act,  139;  First  Continental, 
144,  147,  189;  Second  Continental,  153,  154, 
158,  176,  190;  at  Philadelphia,  173,  174; 
Princeton,  187,  194;  of  Confederation,  192, 
193,  213;  of  United  States,  228,  271,  272, 
275,  291,  395-397. 

Connecticut,  in  colonial  times,  88-92,  99;  in 
Revolution,  184;  under  Confederation,  195; 
land  cession,  193;  free  State,  259,  310. 

Connecticut  River,  map  of  settlements  on,  88. 

Conservation,  Federal  and  State,  459-461. 

Constitution,  convention  for,  199,  200,  213; 
adoption,  200-202;  permits  slavery,  274, 
275;  construction  of,  215,  216,  331,  332;  First 
Amendment,  203,  275;  Twelfth,  230;  Thir 
teenth,  363,  395;  Fourteenth,  396,  403, 
412;  Fifteenth,  397,  398,  403,  412;  Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth,  474,  479;  text,  Appendix  A. 

Constitution  (Old  Ironsides),  warship,  246. 

Continentals  (money),  origin  of  term,  164. 

Conway,  Gen.  Thomas,  174. 

Cornwallis,  Lord  Charles,  British  officer,  182, 
183;  surrender,  100,  183-185,  190,  417. 

Coronado  (k6-ro-na'=H6),  Francisco  Vasquez 
de,  explorations,  22,  23,  40. 

Corrupt  Practices  Act,  467. 

Cortes  (kor-tas'),  Hernando  de,  conquers 
Mexico,  18. 

Cotton,  Southern  crop,  108,  210,  211,  270,  344; 
first  raised,  211,  417;  size  of  crops,  308,  353, 
418;  during  Civil  War,  352-354,  362,  377. 

Cotton-gin,  invented,  210,  211,  213. 

Cowpens  (S.  C.),  battle  at,  182. 

Crawford,  VV.  H.,  presidential  candidate,  264. 

Creek  Indians,  40;  war  with,  248,  272. 

Crimes  and  punishments,  in  colonial  times, 
116. 

Croatan  (kro-a-tan'),  Indian  village,  52. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  ruler  of  England,  63. 

Crown  Point,  captured  by  colonists,  129,  154- 

Crusades,  explained,  i. 

Cuba,  visited  by  Columbus,  13;  his  remains, 
14;  discovered,  47;  Spanish  governor,  21; 
Spanish  colony,  439,  440;  revolts,  440,  441; 
United  States  army  in,  442-445;  independ 
ence,  446,  447;  Taft  aids,  464. 

Cumberland  River,  in  Confederacy,  346,  351, 
358,  359,  390. 

Cumberland  Road.  See  National  Road. 

Custer,  Gen.  George  A.,  409. 


DA  GAMA  (ga'ma),  Vasco,  Portuguese  naviga 
tor,  17. 

Dakota  Indians,  40. 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  in  Virginia,  59. 

Dare,  Virginia,  birth  of,  52. 

Darien  (da'ri-en) ,  Isthmus  of.   See  Panama. 

Dartmouth  College,  founded,  114. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  agrees  with  Calhoun,  315: 
Confederate  President,  338;  captured,  382. 

Dearborn,  Gen.  Henry,  in  War  of  1812,  245, 
246,  250. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  author,  231; 
adopted,  159,  190,  192;  text,  159-162;  Dolly 
Madison  saves  original  of,  250;  centennial 
celebrated,  409. 

Deerfield  (Mass.),  massacre  at,  214. 

De  Kalb.   See  Kalb. 

Delaware,  Lord,  governor  of  Virginia,  59. 

Delaware,  colonial  history,  104,  105;  represen 
tation  in  Congress,  194;  slave  State,  259,  310; 
in  Civil  War,  343. 

Delaware  Bay,  settlers  on,  104. 

Delaware  Indians,  40. 

Delaware  River,  in  colonial  times,  101,  104; 
during  Revolution,  168,  169,  173,  176. 

Democratic- Republicans,  principles,  226-228; 
in  power,  230. 

Democrats,  in  War  of  1812,  256;  national  con 
vention,  293;  desire  Texas,  290;  desire  Ore 
gon,  296;  joined  by  Tyler,  288,  290;  elect 
President,  316,  420,  431;  contest  elections, 
411;  advocate  free  silver,  452. 

Denver,  growth  of,  324,  325,  406;  on  map,  392. 

Departments:  Navy  created,  226;  Commerce 
and  Labor,  42 1 .  See  also  Cabinet. 

De  Soto,  Hernando,  explores  North  America, 

21,  22. 

Detroit,  French  post,  34;  in  Revolution,  178; 
in  War  of  1812,  245,  248. 

Dewey,  Commodore  George,  442,  448,  489. 

Dias  (de'as),  Bartholomeu,  discovers  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  4,  5. 

Diaz  (de'ath),  Gen.  Porfirio,  President  of  Mex 
ico,  468. 

Dictionary,  first  American,  279. 

Dinwiddie,  Robert,  124. 

Discoveries:  in  North  America,  8-n,  17,  28,  47, 
48,  97;  South  America,  17,  47;  Florida,  19; 
Philippines,  20;  Pacific  Ocean,  19,  47;  Hud 
son  Bay  and  River,  28,  29,  32,  48;  Northwest 
Passage,  21;  Great  Lakes,  32;  Mississippi 
River,  22,  35-37;  Columbia  River,  293; 
North  and  South  poles,  475. 

District  of  Columbia,  formed,  218;  slavery  in, 
275,  312,  362;  government,  218. 

Dorchester  (Mass.),  disapproves  railways,  267; 
on  map,  151. 

Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  Democratic  orator,  315- 
317,  333;  debates  with  Lincoln,  323,  324. 

Dover  (N.  H.),  settled,  88;  on  map,  87. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  explorer,  27,  28,  48,  294. 

Draper,  John  W.,  inventor,  328. 

Dred  Scott  decision,  322,  323,  333. 


INDEX 


XXIX 


Duluth  (du-loth'),  explores  Northwest,  38. 

Dustin,  Mrs.  Hannah,  captivity,  121. 

Dutch,  explorations  by,  28,  48;  colonization, 
94-07,  jog,  134;  in  Connecticut,  88,  90;  in 
New  Jersey,  99;  in  Pennsylvania  and  Dela 
ware,  104,  105;  surrender  to  English,  96-98; 
trading,  60,  94,  no;  colonial  customs,  114, 

US- 

Dutch  West  India  Company,  94,  95. 

EADS  (edz),  Capt.  James  B.,  engineer,  413. 

East  River,  bounds  Manhattan  Island,  96;  in 
Revolution,  167,  168;  bridged,  419. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  inventor,  509. 

Education  in  colonial  times,  65,  66,  113,  114; 
in  New  England,  84;  in  New  York,  98;  in 
Northwest  Territory,  196,  213;  in  1790,  209: 
Jefferson  aids,  231;  in  Philippines,  447;  at 
present,  477- 

Edward  VII,  King  of  Great  Britain,  455,  456. 

El  Paso  (el  pa'so),  route  via,  304;  on  map,  392. 

Electoral  Count  Act,  423. 

Electricity.  See  Telegraph  and  Telephone. 

Eliot  (el'i-ot),  John,  Indian  missionary,  84. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  50,  51- 

Elizabeth  (N.  J.),  founded,  99- 

Emancipation,  in  foreign  countries,  209,  275; 
Lincoln's  proclamation,  361-363,  384,  390; 
completed,  395. 

Embargo  Act,  under  Jefferson,  238,  239,  332. 

Emigration.  See  Immigration  and  Western 
Migration. 

Endicott,  John,  settles  Salem,  81. 

England,  discoveries,  17,  27,  28,  47,  48,  55,  97; 
discovers  Northwest  Passage,  21;  buccaneers, 
26-28;  conditions  at  home,  50,  51,  63,  70,  75, 
?6,  90,  92;  defeats  Armada,  50,  51;  coloniza 
tion,  50-105,  109,  134;  colonial  wars,  121- 
133;  oppresses  colonists,  135,  138-148,  189; 
Revolution  against,  151-188;  impresses 
American  seamen,  220-222,  238,  242,  332; 
in  War  of  1812,  242-253,  332;  relations  to 
Florida,  131,  186;  to  Louisiana,  232,  233;  to 
Oregon,  294,  296;  emancipates  slaves,  209, 
275;  immigrants  from,  330,  334;  during  Civil 
War,  352-354;  Alabama  claims,  403,  404; 
minister  to,  256,  281,  321;  arbitration  with, 
434.  435,  467;  in  China,  450;  hostage  to,  417. 
See  also  Treaties. 

Ericson  (er'ik-son),  Leif  (life),  in  America,  8. 

Ericsson,  John,  inventor,  328,  358. 

Erie  Canal,  opened,  264-266,  333. 

Ether,  discovery  of,  328. 

Europe,  relations  with  the  nations  of.  See  Eng 
land,  France,  Holland,  Russia,  Spain.  See 
also  Arbitration,  Colonization,  Commerce, 
Explorations,  Immigration,  Religion,  Slavery, 
Tariff,  Treaties,  Wars. 

Expansion  of  Territory:  Louisiana  Purchase, 
232-234,  333,  439;  Florida  Purchase,  257, 
333,  439;  annexation  of  Texas,  290;  Oregon 
acquisition,  296,  333;  Mexiean  Purchase, 
301,  334;  Gadsden  Purchase,  301;  Alaska, 


400;  after  Spanish-American  War,  446-449; 
Hawaii,  448;  Panama  Canal  Zone,  455. 

Explorations,  Portuguese,  4,  5,  18;  Spanish, 
9-14,  18-24,  47,  48,  56;  English,  17,  27,  28, 
47,  48,  51,  52,  294;  Dutch,  28,  29,  48;  French, 
31-38,  48,  122;  Lewis  and  Clark,  234-236, 
293,  294;  Pike,  236,  237;  Captain  Gray, 
293;  Fremont,  298-300;  polar,  475. 

Express,  overland,  304,  305;  companies,  328. 

FALLEN  TIMBERS,  battle  of,  222. 

Falls  of  St.  Anthony  (an'to-ni),  38,  48. 

Faneuil  (fan'el),  Peter,  Boston  merchant,  145. 

Farragut,  David  B.,  captures  New  Orleans,  360, 
361,  390;  Mobile,  377.  39O. 

Federalists,  favor  constitutions,  201-203,  213; 
urge  "liberal  construction,"  215,  216,  227, 
331,  332;  in  office,  225. 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Aragon,  aids  Columbus, 
7-10,  12. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  lays  Atlantic  cable,  400. 

Filipinos  (fil-i-pe'nos) ,  revolt  from  Spain,  441; 
from  United  States,  447.  Ste  also  Philippine 
Islands. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  President,  310,  313-315. 

Finns,  in  United  States,  109. 

Fisheries,  in  colonial  times,  109,  no;  dispute 
concerning,  266,  404;  arbitrated,  467. 

Fiske,  John,  quoted,  140-142. 

Fitch,  John,  inventor,  237. 

Five  Nations  Indians.  See  Iroquois. 

Flags,  stars  and  stripes  first  used,  172. 

Florida,  discovered,  19,  21;  extent  of,  21;  Span 
ish  in,  23,  54,  70,  134,  206;  ceded  to  England, 
131;  retroceded  to  Spain,  186;  purchased  by 
United  States,  257,  333,  439;  admission  to 
Union,  310;  secedes,  337;  readmission,  397; 
election  frauds  in,  411;  Federal  troops  leave; 
412. 

Foch.,  Gen.  Ferdinand,  506. 

Foote,  Commodore  A.  H.,  in  Civil  War,  390. 

Fort  Christina  (Del.),  built,  105. 

Fort  Dearborn  (Chicago),  245. 

Fort  Donelson  (Tenn.),  captured,  358,  359,  390; 
on  map,  368. 

Fort  Duquesne  (dii'kan'),  built,  125,  127;  sur 
rendered,  129;  on  map,  35. 

Fort  Henry  (Tenn.),  captured,  358,  359,  39O- 

Fort  le  Bceuf  (buf),  on  map,  35- 

Fort  McAllister  (Savannah),  376. 

Fort  McHenry  (Baltimore),  besieged,  250. 

Fort  Moultrie  (mol'tri),  158. 

Fort  Nassau  (nas'a) .   See  Albany. 

Fort  Necessity,  Washington  at,  125;  map,  35- 

Fort  Niagara  (N.Y.),  taken  by  English,  129. 

Fort  Orange.  See  Albany. 

Fort  Pitt  (Pittsburg),  named,  129. 

Fort  Schuyler  (ski'ler),  flies  new  flafi,  172. 

Fort  Stanwix  (N.  Y.),  on  map,  166.  See  alsa 
Fort  Schuyler. 

Fort  Sullivan  (Charleston),  attacked,  158. 

Fort  Sumter  (Charleston),  captured,  340,  34L 
35O,  389;  on  map,  352. 


XXX 


INDEX 


Fort  Sutter  (Cal.),  gold  found  near,  302. 

Fort  Ticonderoga  (N.  Y.),  site,  33;  in  colonial 
wars,  129;  in  Revolution,  154,  157,  171,  172. 

Fort  Yuma  (yu'ma) ,  route  via,  304. 

Fortress  Monroe  (Va.),  in  Civil  War,  338,  342, 
376;  on  map,  350. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  141. 

Fox  Indians,  40. 

Fox  River  (Wis.),  Marquette  on,  36. 

France,  trade  with  Orient,  1-3;  refuses  to  aid 
Columbus,  8;  discoveries,  29,  48;  coloniza 
tion,  31,  38,  55,  70,  122,  123;  relations  with 
Indians,  31-34,  95,  132;  settlers  in  English 
colonies,  70,  90,  101,  104,  107,  109;  colonial 
wars,  121-133;  aids  American  Revolution, 
174-176,  181-184,  186,  190;  debts  to,  194; 
Revolution  (1793),  171,  220;  American  dis 
putes  with,  225,  226,  242,  332;  cedes  Lou 
isiana,  232,  233,  439;  friendly  to  Confed 
eracy,  354,  401;  begins  Panama  Canal,  454, 
455;  soldiers  in  China,  450;  arbitration  treaty 
with,  434.  See  also  New  France. 

Franklin,  Benjam'in,  Revolutionary  patriot, 
126,  159,  163;  agent  for  colonies,  139,  148; 
in  France,  174;  at  Constitutional  Conven 
tion,  199;  Federalist,  201;  an  inventor,  112; 
nickname,  181;  biography  and  portrait,  126. 

Fredericksburg  (Va.),  battle,  356;  on  map,  350. 

Freedmen's  Bureau  Act,  397. 

Fremont  (fra-mont'),  John  C.,  explorations, 
298-300,  304. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law,  312-315,  322,  333- 

Fulton  (ful'ton),  Robert,  inventor  of  steam 
boat,  210,  237;  invention  celebrated,  475. 

Fur  trade,  French  in,  34,  35,  37,  38,  90,  131; 
Dutch  in,  89,  90,  94-96;  English  in,  64,  72, 
108-110,  123;  in  Northwest,  235,  236,  261, 
294,  296,  332;  territory  kept  for,  146,  147. 

GADSDEN  PURCHASE,  301. 

Gage,  Gen.  Thomas,  governor  of  Massachu 
setts,  147;  commands  at  Boston,  151,  154; 
returns  to  England,  157. 

Galveston  (Tex.),  438;  on  map,  392. 

Gama.   See  Da  Gama. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  President,  415. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  abolitionist,  274,  275. 

Gaspee  (gas-pe'),  British  tea  vessel,  143. 

Gates,  Gen.  Horatio,  174,  182. 

Genet  (zhe-na'),  E.  C.,  French  agent,  220. 

Geneva,  arbitration  tribunal  at,  404. 

Genoa  (ien'o-a),  Italy,  i. 

George  II,  King  of  England,  71,  73,  127. 

George  III,  King  of  England,  135,  136,  138- 
148,  158,  160-163,  186,  190. 

Georgia,  settlement  of,  71 -73;  during  Revolu 
tion,  181-183;  land  cession,  193;  slave  State, 
259,  3io;  emigration  from,  258;  secedes,  337; 
in  Civil  War,  372,  374~376. 

Germans,  immigrants  in  colonial  times,  72,  101, 
104,  107,  109,  112;  in  recent  years,  330,  334; 
emperor  as  arbitrator,  404. 

Germantown  (Pa.),  battle  at,  172,  173,  256. 


Germany,  rivalries  of,  482;  invades  Belgium 
483,  484;  terrorism,  487-489;  foreign  intrigue, 
458,  459;  war  with,  496-507. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  366,  367;  Lincoln'r 
speech  at,  367,  368;  on  map,  350 

Gila  (ne'la)  River,  301. 

Gladstone,  W.  E.,  commends  Constitution,  200 

Goethals,  Gen.  George  W.,  501. 

Gold,  in  Oriental  trade,  2;  West  Indies,  12-14; 
Spanish  colonies,  18,  26;  English  search  for,' 
52,  54,  55,  58;  King's  share,  101;  discovery 
of  in  California,  302-305,  334-  Colorado,  324, 
325, 334,  Nevada,  325,  Alaska,  400;  amount  ?e- 
cured,  305, 407 ;  as  specie,  283;  standard,  452. 

Goldsboro  (N.  C.),  battle  at,  376;  on  map,  352. 

Gorges  (gor'jez),  Sir  F.,  land  grant  to,  88. 

Gosnold,  Bartholomew,  explorer,  52. 

Government,  of  colonies,  61-63,  73,  79,  80,  82, 
83,  86,  87,  90,  91,  98,  101-103,  no,  125,  126, 
135-138,  146,  147,  189;  during  Revolution, 
147,  148,  153,  159-163,  190;  under  Confed 
eration,  192-197;  changes  made  by  Consti 
tution,  200,  201;  of  Confederacy,  337,  338; 
control  of  railroads,  423,  424,  461;  control  of 
food  and  drugs,  461,  462. 

Governors,  meet  at  Washington,  461. 

Grant,  Gen.  Ulysses  S.,  in  Civil  War,  359,  369- 
374,  380-3&2,  389-391;  President,  403-410, 
416;  death,  420;  Memoirs,  298,  420;  biogra 
phy,  403. 

Grasse  (gras),  Count  Francois  de,  184. 

Gray,  Capt.  Robert,  236,  293. 

Great  Britain,  Revolution  against,  151,  188;  in 
War  of  1812,  242,  253,  332;  arbitration  with, 
434.  435,  467.  See  England,  and  Treaties. 

Great  Lakes,  discovered,  32-34,  48, 134;  French 
possess,  123;  forts  on,  129;  first  steamboat, 
238;  in  War  of  1812,  245,  247;  connected 
with  ocean,  265. 

Great  Meadows,  Washington  at,  125. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  explored,  299. 

Greeley,  Horace,  editor,  361. 

Green  Bay  (Wis.),  34;  Marquette  at,  36. 

Greene,  Gen.  Nathanael,  182,  183,  190. 

Greenland,  Norwegians  in,  6. 

Guam  (gwam),  ^48, 

Guilford  (gil'frod),  settled,  89;  on  map,  88. 

Guilford  Court  House  (N.  C.),  battle  at,  182. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  Spanish  in,  21,  22,  34,  36,  48; 
French,  37;  during  Civil  War,  360,  377,  379; 
hurricane,  438. 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  explored,  54;  in  colonial 
wars,  121. 

Gunpowder,  invented,  5. 

Guthrie  (Okla.),  built,  428;  on  map,  392. 

HAGUE  (hag),  451. 

Haiti    (ha'ti),   discovered,    13,    47;    Columbus 

buried  at,  14. 

Hale,  Nathan,  executed  as  a  spy,  168. 
Half  Moon,  Hudson's  ship,  28,  29. 
Halifax  (Nova  Scotia),  Howe  at,  158. 
Halleck,  Gen.  Henry  W.,  358,  359. 


INDEX 


XXXI 


Hamilton,  Gen.  Alexander,  services  to  Consti 
tution,  199-201,  241;  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
216-219,  222,  332;  biography,  199,  200. 

Hampton  Institute  (Va.),  419. 

Hampton  Roads  (Va.),  battle  in,  357,  358. 

Hancock,  John,  I5i-i53,  163. 

Hancock,  Gen.  Winfield  S.,  at  Gettysburg,  366. 

Harper's  Ferry  (Va.),  captured  by  Brown,  326. 

Harrisburg  (Pa.),  threatened  by  Confederates, 
366;  on  map,  350. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  signer  of  Declaration,  287. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  President,  426-430. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  defeats  Indians,  242 ; 
British,  248;  President,  286-288. 

Hartford  (Conn.),  settled,  88;  in  colonial  times, 
89,  90;  in  War  of  1812,  244;  on  map,  88. 

Harvard,  Rev.  John,  endows  college,  84. 

Harvard  College,  founded,  84,  108,  114;  grad 
uates,  225,  264,  454. 

Havana  (ha.-van'a),  Cuba,  under  Spanish  re 
gime,  14,  21,  440;  captured  by  English,  131. 

Hawaii  (ha-wi'e),  annexed,  448. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  478. 

Hay,  John,  Chinese  policy,  450. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  in  Civil  War,  437;  elec 
tion  contest,  411;  President,  411-416. 

Hayne,  Robert  Y.,  277,  333. 

Hennepin,  Father  Louis,  37,  38. 

Henry  VII,  King  of  England,  17 • 

Henry,  Patrick,  62,  138,  141,  147,  201. 

Merkimer  (her'ki-mer) ,  Gen.  Nicholas,  172. 

Hessians,  in  Revolution,  158,  168,  169^  190. 

Hobson,  Lieut.  Richmond  P.,  445. 

Hoe,  Richard  M.,  inventor,  328. 

Holland,  Pilgrims  in,  76,  77;  abolishes  slavery, 
209;  creditor  of  United  States,  194-  See  also 
Dutch. 

Homestead  Act,  404,  405,  426. 

Honolulu  (ho-no-16'lo),  cable  to,  455- 

Hooker,  Gen.  Joseph,  Unfon  commander,  365, 
366,  371,  372,  389- 

Hooker,  Thomas,  Connecticut  pioneer,  89. 

Hoover,  Herbert  C.,  484. 

Hopkinson,  Joseph,  author  of  song,  226. 

Horseshoe  Bend  (Ala.),  battle  of,  248. 

House  of  Representatives,  chooses  President, 
230,  264.  See  also  Congress. 

Houston,  Gen.  Sam,  in  Texas,  289,  290. 

Howe,  Elias,  inventor,  329,  475. 

Howe,  Gen.  William,  British  commander,  155, 

156,  168,  171,  173,  174;  evacuates  Boston, 

157,  158,  167. 

Hudson,  Henry,  discoveries,  28,  29,  32,  48, 
94!  death,  29;  discovery  celebrated,  475. 

Hudson,  John,  death,  29. 

Hudson  Bay,  discovered,  29. 

Hudson  River,  discovered,  32,  48,  94;  named, 
29;  settlers  on,  78,  95,  109,  206;  during  Rev 
olution,  129,  154,  167,  168,  171,  176,  179, 
184;  War  of  1812,  245;  terminus  of  Erie 
Canal,  264,  266;  first  steamboat  on,  237, 
333;  tunneled,  419. 

Huerta,  Gen.  Victoriano,  468,  480,  491. 


Hughes,  Judge  Charles  Evans,  492,  493- 

Huguenots,  in  Carolina,  70. 

Hull,  Capt.  Isaac,  naval  captain,  246. 

Hull,  Gen.  William,  surrenders  Detroit,  245, 

246. 

Huron  Indians,  40. 
Hutchinson,  Mrs.  Anne,  85,  86. 

IBERVILLE  (e-ber-vel')  >  Pierre  le  Moyne, 
founds  Louisiana,  38. 

Iceland,  Columbus  in,  6;  Norwegians  in,  6,  17. 

Idaho,  in  Oregon  country,  296;  admission  to 
Union,  428;  woman  suffrage  in,  428. 

Illinois  (il-i-noi'),  during  the  Revolution,  178; 
Lewis  and  Clark  in,  234;  admission  to  Union, 
195,  259;  National  Road  in,  254;  free  State, 
259,  3io;  slavery  debates  in,  323;  Lincoln, 
336,  337;  presidents  from,  336,  403. 

Illinois  Indians,  mission  for,  35- 

Immigration,  in  colonial  times,  109;  to  Louisi 
ana  Purchase,  233;  after  European  wars, 
258;  to  North,  307,  308;  increase,  329,  330, 
334,  476,  477;  opposition  to,  319.  See  also 
Chinese. 

Impeachment  of  Johnson,  397,  398. 

Indentured  servants,  60. 

Independence  Hall,  147. 

Independent  treasury,  established,  284. 

India  (Indies),  early  trade  with  Europe,  1-3; 
reached  by  Portuguese,  5;  water  route  to,  6, 
7,  14,  17;  Columbus  confounds  with  West 
Indies,  12;  route  thither  sought,  47,  134. 

Indians  (in'di-anz),  population,  40,48;  mounds, 
42;  villages,  22,  23,  42-44;  dress,  43;  moc 
casins,  113;  religion,  41,  42;  missions  for,  24, 
34,  35,  84;  customs,  48;  relations  to  whites, 
44-46;  to  Spanish,  12-14,  19,  22,  23;  to 
French,  31-34.  36,  38,  132;  to  Dutch,  95, 
105;  to  Virginia,  52,  57,  58,  63,  64;  to  Mary 
land,  68,  69;  to  New  England,  75,  80,  81,  89- 
92,  95,  132-134;  to  Quaker  colonies,  100- 
102;  during  colonial  wars,  108,  112,  121, 
127,  128,  137;  during  Revolution,  171,  178, 
179,  190;  later  wars  with,  213,  222,  234-236, 
242,  243,  245,  248,  257,  272,  273,  286,  287, 
294-296,  300,  332,  409;  in  Alaska,  261; 
trade  with,  27,  33,  34,  72,  88,  109,  236;  sell 
land,  85,  94,  99,  100,  103;  reservations,  46, 
427;  school  for,  419;  map  of  tribes,  40.  See 
also  Fur  trade,  Missions,  and  Treaties. 

Indian  Territory,  Oklahoma  formed  from, 
427;  added  to  Oklahoma,  428. 

Indiana,  a  territory,  242;  admission  to  Union, 
195,  259;  free  State,  259,  310;  oil  found  in, 
325;  President  from,  426. 

Indigo,  Southern  crop,  71,  108,  no,  270. 

Industrial  Workers  of  the  World,  470. 

Initiative,  the,  466. 

Internal  improvements,  271,  272,  284,  333. 

Interstate  Commerce  Act,  423,  424;  commis 
sion  for,  424,  461. 

Intolerable  Acts,  passed  by  Great  Britain, 
146-147,  189. 


XXX11 


INDEX 


Inventions:  American  progress  in,  319,  328, 
329,  334,474-477;  gunpowder,  printing,  com 
pass,  47;  stoves,  112;  cotton-gin,  210,  213; 
sewing  machine,  329,  475;  steamboat,  237; 
stfam  engine,  266,  267;  telegraph,  291,  292; 
cable,  399,  400;  telephone,  475;  typewriter, 
509;  wireless,  406. 

Iowa,  in  Louisiana  Purchase,  233;  admission 
to  Union,  310;  free  State,  260. 

Irish  immigrants,  330,  334. 

Iron,  mined  in  colonies,  109,  no;  manufac 
tured,  in;  in  South,  308,  418. 

Iroquois  (ir-o-kwoi')  Indians  (Five  Nations, 
Six  Nations),  32,  40,  95,  13 

Irrigation,  in  West,  300,  406,  407. 

Irving,  Washington,  236. 

Isabella  of  Castile,  aids  Columbus,  7-10,  12. 

Island  Number  10,  in  Civil  War,  358,  360,  390. 

Italians,  navigators,  1-3,  6,  17,  18,  29,  47;  as 
arbitrators,  434;  sufferers  from  earthquake, 
446. 

JACKSON,  Gen.  Andrew,  in  War  of  1812,  248, 
251-253,  332;  invades  Florida,  257;  candi 
date  for  President,  264;  President,  272-279, 
281;  attitude  toward  Union,  276,  277,  333, 
338,  388;  biography  and  portrait,  272. 

Jackson,  Gen.  Thomas  J.  (Stonewall),  351, 
355,  356,  366,  389,  39i;  portrait,  355- 

James  I,  King  of  England,  54,  55,  58,  63,  76, 
77,  79;  places  named  for,  56. 

James  II,  Duke  of  York,  98-100;  King  of  Eng 
land,  87,  90. 

Jamestown,  Virginia  colony,  56-59,  64,  65. 

Japan,  early  trade  with  Europe,  1-3;  visited 
by  Perry,  319;  sealing  troubles  with,  434, 
435;  cooperates  in  China,  450;  in  arbitration 
court,  451;  treaty  with,  467;  in  Hawaii,  448. 

Jay,  John,  chief  justice,  216;  negotiates  treaty, 
221,  222. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  Revolutionary  patriot,  62, 
153;  writes  Declaration  of  Independence, 
159;  in  Washington's  cabinet,  216;  Presi 
dent,  230-239;  inauguration,  218;  purchases 
Louisiana,  232,  233,  332;  policy,  196,  332; 

'    opinions,  227,  228,  261. 

Joffre,  Marshal,  497. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  President,  393-401. 

Johnston,  Gen.  Albert  S.,  359. 

Johnston,  Gen.  Joseph  E.,  Confederate  com 
mander,  380;  surrenders,  382,  390,  391. 

Jolliet  (zho-lya'),  Louis,  35,  36. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  180,  181,  190. 

KALB,  Baron  Johann  de,  170,  196. 

Kamchatka  (kam-chat'ka)  Sea,  435- 

Kansas,  explorations,  23,  236,  300;  in -Louisi 
ana  Purchase,  233;  American  desert,  300; 
slavery  struggle  in,  317,  318,  322,  326,  333; 
admission,  318,  406;  oil  found  in,  325. 

Kansas  City  (Mo.),  terminus  of  Santa  Fe 
trail,  299;  growth,  406;  on  map,  299. 

Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  316,  317. 


!  Kearny  (kar'ni),  Stephen  W.,  300,  301. 
|  Kentucky,  during  Revolution,  178,  179;  road 
to,  207;  in  1790,  206;  admission  to  Union, 
223;  resolutions  of  1799,  226-228,  332; 
growth,  251,  258;  slave  State,  259,  310;  in 
Civil  War,  343,  360,  370;  statesmen  from, 
243,  260. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  250. 

Kidd,  Capt.  William,  pirate,  117. 

Kiel  Canal,  483. 

King  Philip,  Indian  chief,  91,  92. 

King's  College.   See  Columbia  College. 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  182;  on  map,  166. 

Know  Nothings,  political  party,  319. 

Knox  (noks),  Gen.  Henry,  204,  216. 

Kosciuszko  (kos-i-us'ko),  Gen.  Tadeusz,  in 
the  Revolution,  170,  190. 

Ku-Klux-Klan,  399- 

LABOR,  in  colonial  times,  56,  57,  60, 108;  North 
and    South   compared,    270,    271,    307-309, 
418;  unemployed,  284,  433;  organized,  470; 
strikes,  408,  421,  433,   457,   458,   469,  47O 
See  also  Panics  and  Slavery. 
1  Labrador,  Cabot's  voyage  to,  17;  explored,  36. 
I  Ladrone  Islands,  448.   See  also  Guam. 

Lafayette  (la-fa- yet') ,  Marquis  de,  170,  171, 
183,  190;  revisits  America,  156,  263;  biogra 
phy  and  portrait,  170,  171. 

Lake,  Simon,  inventor,  476. 

Lake  Borgne  (bor'ny),  British  fleet  in,  251. 

Lake  Champlain,  discovered,  32,  48;  forts  on, 
154;  route  via,  129,  156,  167,  171,  245;  bat 
tle,  249. 

Lake  Erie,  32;  Indians  near.  40;  united  with 
Hudson,  264,  265;  naval  battle,  247,  248. 

Lake  George,  route  via,  156. 

Lake  Huron  (hii'ron),  discovered,  32. 

Lake  Michigan,  32,  33;  Marquette  on,  36. 

Lake  Ontario,  32;  Indians  near,  40. 

Lake  Superior,  32;  explored,  38. 

Lake  Winnipeg   (win'i-peg),   French  visit,  38, 
J  Lake  of  the  Woods,   on  boundary  line,   262, 
289,  296;  on  map,  192. 

Lancaster  (Pa.),  Congress  at,  174- 

Lands:  in  colonial  times,  51,  56-59,  62,  72,  73, 
95;  States  cede,  193,  213;  speculation  in, 
282,  321;  Homestead  Act,  404,  405;  grants 
to  railroads,  405;  Oklahoma  opened,  427, 
428;  forest  reserves,  461.  See  also  Conser 
vation  and  Irrigation. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de,  36-38. 

Lawrence,  Capt.  James,  247,  248. 

Lee,  Gen.  Charles,  168,  176,  190. 

Lee,  Gen.  Fitzhugh,  446. 

Lee,  Col.  Henry,  183,  190,  228^^.5. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  147,  203.^^ 

Lee,  Gen.  Robert  E.,  ancestors,  64,  183;  joins 
Confederacy,  345;  battles,  355,  356,  365, 
366,  368,  372,  373,  379,  38o,  38,9,  39i;  sur 
renders,  380-382,  390. 

Lewis  and  Clark,  exploring  expedition,  234- 
236,  293,  294,  332,  333;  centennial  of,  462 


< 


INDEX 


XXXI 11 


Lexington  (Mass.),  battle  at,  151-1  S3,  IQO. 

Lincoln  (ling'kon),  Abraham,  debates  with 
Douglas,  323,  324,  333;  election,  336,  337!  in 
auguration,  339;  call  for  troops,  341 .  342; 
releases  Mason  and  Slidell,  354;  cabinet, 
329,  361;  slavery  sentiment,  333,  339;  Eman 
cipation  Proclamation,  361-363,  390;  Get 
tysburg  address,  367,  368;  second  inaugural, 
379;  on  Union,  388;  at  Richmond,  380;  mes 
sage  to,  376;  reconstruction  plan,  39O,  394! 
assassination,  382,  383,  390. 

Lincoln,  Gen.  Benjamin,  185. 

Lisbon  (Portugal),  Columbus  at,  6,  7- 

Little  Bighorn  River,  fight  on,  409. 

Livingston,  Robert  R.,  159. 

London  Company,  charter,  54,  63;  grants,  59; 
colony,  55-58,  61-63;  grants  on  map,  54- 

Long  Island,  settled,  89;  battle  of,  167;  bridge 
to,  419. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  127,  152. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  371,  372. 

Los  Angeles,  (los  an'je-les),  Kearny  at,  301; 
growth,  407;  on  map,  299. 

Louisburg,  captured,  121,  122,  129'. 

Louisiana  (16-e-ze-an'a) ,  State,  in  Louisiana 
Purchase,  233;  War  of  1812,  253;  settled, 
258;  admission  to  Union,  259;  slave  State, 
259.  3io;  cotton  State,  211;  secedes,  337;  in 
Civil  War,  368,  390,  397;  reconstruction 
in,  397,  411,  412;  President  from,  310. 

Louisiana  Province,  named,  37;  colonized  by 
French,  38,  123;  ceded  to  Spain,  131,  206, 
231;  retroceded  to  France,  232,  439;  sold, 
232-234;  eastern  limit,  186. 

Louisiana  Purchase,  232-234,  332,  439;  ex 
plored,  234-237;  boundaries,  257,  262;  settle 
ment  in,  258,  259;  organized,  316;  slavery  in, 
312,  333;  centennial  exposition,  462. 

Loyalists,  158,  171,  174,  178,  182,  221. 

Lumber,  exported, '109,  no. 

Lusitania,  torpedoed,  488. 

Luzon  (16-zon'),  Philippine  Island,  447. 

Lynn  (Mass.),  settled,  82. 

McCLELLAN,  Gen.  George  B.,  355,  356,  389. 

McClure,  Capt.  Robert,  21. 

McCormick,  Cyrus  H.,  329,  475. 

Macdcnough  (mak-don'o),  Lieut.  Thomas, 
defeats  British,  249. 

Mackenzie,  Sir  Alexander,  explorer,  294. 

Mackinac  (mak'i-na),  French  post,  34,  36; 
captured  (1812),  245. 

McKinley,  William,  tariff  bill,  426;  President, 
437-453;  assassinated,  453. 

Madeira  (ma-de'ra)  Islam^^.  109. 

Madero,  Fran^ho,  468.^^ 

Madison,  James,  in  Virginia  assembly,  62; 
father  of  Constitution,  199,  201;  Virginia 
Resolutions  by,  227;  President,  241-255. 

Magellan  (ftia-jel'an),  Ferdinand,  circum 
navigates  globe,  19-21,  47,  48;  discovers 
Philippines,  439;  portrait,  20. 

Maine,  coast  explored,  52;  part  of  Massachu 


setts,  88;  settlements,  87,  88;  fur  trade,  90 
during  Revolution,  156;  admission  to  Union. 
260;  free  State,  260,  310;  boundary,  288. 

Maine,  battleship,  440,  441. 

Manassas  (ma-nas'as)  Junction,  battle  •rcar, 
350.  See  also  Bull  Run. 

Manhattan  (man-hat' nn)  Island,  purchased 
of  Indians,  94,  95;  in  colonial  times,  96,  98; 
in  Revolution,  167,  168,  171,  186;  recent 
times,  410,  438.  See  also  New  York  City. 

Manila  (ma-ne'la),  Philippine  capital,  447; 
under  Americans,  442,  449,  455. 

Manila  Bay,  battle  in,  442. 

Manufactures,  in  colonies,  109-111,  134;  about 
1790,  222,  223;  during  War  of  1812,  253,  332; 
in  Northern  States,  270,  271,  307;  protected, 
218;  North  and  South  contrasted,  344;  dur 
ing  Civil  War,  385;  in  recent  times,  418,  438, 
469,  470;  center  of,  469.  See  also  Tariff. 

Manufacturing  Acts,  189. 

Maps  :  — 

Civil  War:  Atlanta  Campaign  and  Sher 
man's  March,  375,  Blockaded  Coast,  352, 
in  the  East,  350,  in  the  West.  368;  Colum- 
bus's,  7;  Columbus 's  Voyages,  13;  Connec 
ticut  Valley,  88;  Early  Voyages,  21;  French 
and  Indian  War,  122;  Indian  Tribes,  40; 
London  and  Plymouth  Companies'  Grants, 
54;  Mediaeval  Routes  of  Trade,  i;  Mexican 
War,  297;  Middle  Colonies,  99;  New  England 
Coast,  87;  New  Netherland,  98;  North 
America  in  1650,  94;  North  America  in 
1750,  124;  North  America  after  1763,  132; 
Northwest  Territory,  195;  Panama  Canal 
Zone,  454;  Pilgrims  in  Europe,  76;  Portage 
Routes,  35;  Revolution:  near  Boston,  151; 
Revolution:  in  general,  166;  Revolution: 
in  West,  179;  Southern  Colonies,  71; 
Spanish-American  War:  Manila  Bay,  442; 
Spanish-American  War:  Santiago  Cam 
paign,  443;  United  States:  in  1783,  192; 
United  States;  before  1803,  234;  United 
States:  after  1803,  235;  United  States:  in 
1820,  260;  United  States:  in  1854,  316; 
United  States:  in  1863,  342;  United  States: 
Continental  expansion,  392,  393;  United 
States,  and  its  possessions,  449;  War  of 
1812,  245;  Western  Trails  and  Railroad 
Routes,  299;  Westward  Movement  (center 
of  population  and  manufactures),  469; 
World  before  Columbus's  voyage,  3. 

Marconi  (mar-ko'ne),  Guglielmo,  456,  476. 

Marion  (mar'i-on),  Gen.  Francis,  183. 

Mark  Twain  (S.  L.  Clemens),  478. 

Marquette  (mar-ket'),  Father  Jacques,  35,  36. 

Marshall,  John,  chief  justice,  216,  217,  228. 

Maryland,  in  colonial  times,  64,  68—70,  103, 
104,  128,  134;  fur  trade  in,  108;  forces  West 
ern  land  claims,  193;  cedes  District  of  Co 
lumbia,  218;  slave  State,  259,  310;  during 
Civil  War,  343,  356,  380. 

Mason,  James  M.,  353,  354,  390. 

Mason,  John,  obtains  grant,  88. 


XXXIV 


INDEX 


Mason  and  Dixon  line,  surveyed,  103,  104; 
boundary  between  slave  and  free  States, 
313,  314.  339,  367. 

Massachusetts  (mas-a-cho'sets) ,  Indians,  40; 
in  Revolution,  142-144,  146,  180;  free  State, 
209,  259,  3io;  in  Civil  War,  350;  presidents 
from,  225,  264. 

'Massachusetts  Bay,  settlements  near,  78,  206. 

Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  settled,  81-84, 
134;  charter,  87;  General  Court,  82-84;  ex 
pels  dissenters,  85,  86,  90;  colonial  life,  88- 
92,  121. 

Massasoit,  Indian  chief,  80. 

Maumee  (ma-me')  Rapids,  battle  near,  222. 

Maximilian  (mak-si-mil'i-an),  401. 

Mayflower,  Pilgrims'  ship,  77-80. 

Mayflower  Compact,  79,  80,  89. 

Meade,  Gen.  George  G.,  366,  389. 

Meat  Inspection  Bill,  462. 

Mecklenburg  (mek'len-berg)  County  (N.C.), 
Declaration  of  Independence,  159. 

Mediterranean  (med"i-te-ra'ne-an)  Sea,  early 
navigation  of,  i,  4,  6;  piracy  in,  239. 

Merrimac,  duel  with  Monitor,  356-358,  390. 

Merrimac  River,  88. 

Mexico,  under  Spain,  18,  22,  23,  26,  28,  134; 
revolts  from  Spain,  261,  439;  abolishes 
slavery,  209;  trouble  with  Texas,  289,  290; 
includes  California,  293;  sells  lands  to  U.S., 
301,  334!  boundary  dispute,  297;  Maxi 
milian  in,  401;  in  Postal  Union,  417;  recent 
troubles,  465,  467,  468,  480,  491.  See  also 
Wars:  Mexican. 

Mexico  City,  22,  298. 

Miami  (mi-am'e)  Indians,  40. 

Michigan,  admission  to  Union,  195;  a  free 
State,  310;  forest  fires  in,  409. 

Middle  Colonies,  social  customs,  109,  114,  115; 
in  the  Revolution,  167-177. 

Middletown  (N.J.),  founded,  99. 

Milford  (Conn.),  settled,  89. 

Mills,  colonial,  in.   See  also  Manufactures. 

Mindanao  (men-da-na'o),  Philippines,  447. 

Mining,  in  Spanish  colonies,  18,  19;  in  English 
colonies,  58,  109,  no;  during  Civil  War, 
385;  in  South,  308,  418;  labor  troubles,  408. 
See  also  Coal,  Gold,  Iron,  and  Silver. 

Minnesota  (min-e-so'ta) ,  in  Louisiana  Pur 
chase,  233;  admission  to  Union,  195,  318; 
forest  fires,  409. 

Mint,  established,  219,  451. 

Minuit  (min'u-it),  Peter,  94. 

Minutemen,  151-154. 

Miquelon  (mek-lon')  Island,  131. 

Missions,  in  Spanish  colonies,  23,  24;  in  New 
France,  34,  35,  37;  in  New  England,  84;  in 
Oregon,  294. 

Missionary  Ridge,  battle  of ,  37L  372. 

Mississippi,  part  belongs  to  Spain,  186,  206; 
settled,  258;  admission,  259;  slave  State, 
259,  310;  cotton  State,  211;  secedes,  337. 

Mississippi  River,  discovered  by  Spanish,  22; 
by  French,  35-37,  48;  settlement  of,  123; 


flatboats,  231;  free  navigation,  231-233;  in 
War  of  1812,  249,  251;  in  Civil  War,  346, 
347,  351,  358,  360,  361,  368,  370,  374!  first 
steamboat,  237;  jetties,  413,  414. 

Mississippi  Valley,  Indian  mounds  in,  42; 
French  in,  37,  38;  development,  404,  455. 

Missouri  (mi-zo'ri),  in  Louisiana  Purchase,  233; 
admission  to  Union,  259,  260,  333;  slave 
State,  260,  310,  322;  does  not  secede,  343. 

Missouri  Compromise,  260,  261;  repealed,  316, 
317,  322. 

Missouri  River,  explored,  234,  235;  terminus 
of  route,  294, 304;  settlement  beyond,  405, 406. 

Mobile  (mo-bel'),  186;  in  War  of  1812,  253; 
in  Civil  War,  377,  390;  on  map,  352. 

Mohawk  Indians,  Iroquois  tribe,  40. 

Mohawk  River,  32,  171,  206,  264. 

Money,  in  colonial  times,  86;  during  Revolu 
tion,  164, 194,  196,  197;  before  panic  of  1837, 
282-284;  in  Civil  War,  384-386;  before 
panic  of  1873,  408;  specie  payments,  412, 
413;  coinage,  219;  free  coinage  of  silver,  451, 
452;  gold  standard  adopted,  452;  in  World 
War,  500,  507. 

Monitor,  duel  with  Merrimac,  356-358,  390. 

Monmouth  (mon'muth),  battle  of,  176,  190, 
256;  on  map,  166. 

Monongahela  (mp-non-ga-he'la)  River,  124. 

Monroe  (mun-ro'),  James,  in  Virginia  assem 
bly,  62;  President,  256-263. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  declared,  261,  262,  333; 
later  applications,  401,  435,  456,  480. 

Montana  (mon-ta'na),  in  Louisiana  Purchase, 
233;  part  of  Nebraska  Territory,  317;  In 
dians  of,  409;  admission  to  Union,  428. 

Montcalm  (mont-kam'),  Marquis  de,  130. 

Monterey  (mon-te-ra') ,  302;  on  map,  297. 

Montgomery,  Richard,  invades  Canada,  156. 

Montgomery  (Ala.),  Confederate  capital,  337- 

Monticello  (mon-te-sel'lo) ,  231. 

Montreal,  founded,  31;  French  settlement,  38, 
123,  129;  surrenders  to  English,  122,  131; 
in  Revolution,  156;  on  map,  122. 

Moors,  war  with  Spain,  8;  with  United  States, 
239- 

Morgan,  Gen.  Daniel,  at  Cowpens,  182,  190. 

Morris,  Robert,  169,  170. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  291-293,  328,  400,  455. 

Moultrie  (mol'tri),  Col.  William,  158. 

Mount  Vernon,  Washington's  home,  188,  203. 

Muskogee  (mus-ko'ge)  Indians,  40. 

NAPOLEON  I,  wars  of,  226,  243,  248,  332;  frees 

Lafayette,  171;  sells  Louisiana,  232-234. 
Napoleon  III,  interference  in  Mexico,  401. 
Narragansett  (nar-a-gan'set)  Bay,  colonized, 

85,  91;  pirates  in,  117. 
Narragansett  Indians,  40. 
National  Defense  Act,  490. 
National-Republicans,   merge   in  Whigs,    286. 

See  also  Democratic-Republicans. 
National  Road,  built,  254,  255,333;  travel  on. 

257,  258. 


INDEX 


XXXV 


National  War  Labor  Board,  464.  499- 

Navigation  Acts,  in  colonial  times,  109,  no, 
189;  enforced,  136,  137- 

Navy,  during  Revolution,  164,  180,  181;  war 
with  France,  226;  in  Barbary  wars,  239;  in 
War  of  1812,  244,  246-249,  252,  332;  in  Civil 
War,  345,  346,  351-353,  376,  377,  390;  in 
Spanish  War,  441-445;  Pacific  stations  for, 
448;  voyage  of  battleship  fleet,  458;  in  World 
War,  489,  490,  496. 

Nebraska,  in  Louisiana  Purchase,  231,  233; 
American  desert,  300;  a  territory,  316,  317; 
admission  to  Union,  406. 

Negroes,  in  Northern  army,  362;  problems 
of,  393-397,  412;  progress,  419,  508. 

Netherlands,  rebel  against  Spain,  27. 

Neutrality,  Washington  proclaims,  220;  Wilson 
proclaims,  484. 

Nevada  (ne-va'da) ,  part  of  Mexican  Purchase, 
301;  precious  metals  in,  325;  admission,  406. 

New  Amsterdam,  described,  94~97,  nS-  See 
also  Manhattan  Island,  and  New  York  City. 

New  England,  coast  explored,  29;  early  fish 
eries,  10;  named,  75,  78;  colonized,  75^92, 
134;  royal  governors  of,  87,  90,  98;  religious 
persecutions  in,  64,  92,  96;  colonial  customs 
of,  108-111,  113-116;  during  colonial  wars, 
121,  122;  in  Revolution,  167,  171;  in  1790, 
206;  disapproves  War  of  1812,  242-244,  256; 
anti-slavery  laws,  209.  See  also  Boston, 
and  the  respective  colonies. 

New  England  Confederation,  90,  91. 

New  France,  founded,  31-34;  growth,  34~37; 
in  colonial  wars,  121-129;  surrendered  to 
British,  129-133;  population,  125;  religion, 
68.  See  also  Canada. 

New  Hampshire,  first  settlements,  86-88;  fur 
trade  in,  90;  in  colonial  wars,  121;  a  free 
State,  259,  310;  President  from,  316. 

New  Haven  (Conn.),  settled,  89;  colonial  gov 
ernment,  89,  91;  on  map,  88. 

New  Jersey,  colonial  history,  99,  100,  109, 
114;  royal  governor,  87,  98;  during  Revolu 
tion,  168-170,  176;  during  Confederation, 
195;  a  free  State,  209,  259,  310;  in  recent 
times,  419. 

New  Mexico,  Indians  of,  40;  during  Spanish 
regime,  22-24,  J34,  237;  part  of  Mexico, 
298;  claimed  by  Texas,  297;  in  Mexican 
Purchase,  301;  territory,  312;  admission,  469. 

New  Netherland,  colonized,  94-97;  becomes 
New  York,  98;  extent,  104. 

New  Orleans,  French  settlement,  34,  38,  123, 
131;  under  Spanish,  231;  in  War  of  1812, 
250-253,  332;  in  Civil  War,  360,  390;  recent 
times,  414,  417,  418;  on  map,  124. 

New  Sweden,  history  of,  105. 

New  York  (State),  Indians  of,  32,  40;  taken 
from  Dutch,  98,  99;  royal  governor,  87,  98; 
population  in  1673,  98;  colonial  customs, 
114,  116;  in  colonial  wars,  122;  in  Revolu 
tion,  178;  in  Confederation,  195;  War  of 
1812,  249;  a  free  State,  209,  259,  310;  builds 


Erie  Canal,  264,  266;  oil  in,  325;  governor, 
281,  420;  presidents  from,  281,  313,  415,  420, 

454- 

New  York  Bay,  discovered,  29;  importance  of, 
98;  Statue  of  Liberty  in,  424. 

New  York  City,  in  colonial  times,  96,  97,  us. 
134;  during  Revolution,  146,  154,  163,  167, 
168,  176,  179,  183,  187,  190;  population  in 
1790,  206;  United  States  capital,  203,  218, 
222;  celebrates  Erie  Canal,  264, 
Civil  War,  367;  in  recent  times,  258,  319, 
326,  409,  438,  439;  Hudsen- Fulton  celebra 
tion,  29,  4755  newspapers,  116,  227,  279. 

Newark  (N.J.),  founded,  99- 

Newcastle  (Del.),  Penn  at,  101;  on  map,  99. 

Newfoundland  (nu-found'land) ,  Cabot's  voy 
age  to,  17;  cable  terminus,  399,  400;  fisheries, 
404,  467. 

Newport  (R.I.),  founded,  86;  chartered,  90. 

Newspapers,  in  colonial  times,  114;  in  1790, 
209;  first  one-cent,  279;  in  Oklahoma,  428. 

Niagara  River,  245,  329. 

Nicolet  (nik'p-la),  Jean,  in  Northwest,  33- 

Nina  (nen'ya),  Columbus's  ship,  9. 

Nobel  (no-bel')  peace  prize,  to  Roosevelt,  456. 

Non-Intercourse  Act,  239,  241,  332. 

Norfolk  (Va.),  navy  yard,  342,  357- 

North,  Frederick,  Lord,  British  statesiuan, 
186. 

North,  anti-slavery  sentiment  in,  274,  290,  297, 
301,  310,  313-315,  326;  economic  conditions 
in,  260,  270-272,  307-310;  effect  of  Civil 
War  in,  326,  385-387. 

North  America,  discovered,  17,  47,  55;  claimed 
by  English,  28. 

North  Carolina,  in  colonial  times,  29,  51,  54, 
71;  during  Revolution,  143,  182;  land  cession 
of,  193;  emigration  from,  207,  258;  a  slave 
State,  310;  secedes,  342;  in  Civu  War-  376; 
readmission,  397. 

North  Dakota  (da-ko'ta),  in  Louisiana  Pur 
chase,  233;  admission  to  Union,  428. 

North  Pole,  discovered,  475- 

North  River.   See  Hudson. 

Northwest,  explored  by  French,  38;  during 
Revolution,  178,  179;  forts  kept  by  British, 
221;  in  War  of  1812,  247,  248. 

Northwest  Passage,  search  for,  21,  29,  48. 

Northwest  Territory,  organized,  195,  196,  213; 
Indian  war  in,  222;  map  of,  195- 

Norwegians,  in  Iceland,  6;  in  Nova  Scotia,  17; 
explorers,  21,  475;  arbitrators,  434. 

Nova  Scotia,  Norwegians  in,  6;  under  English 
rule,  121,  127,  128,  245. 

Nueces  (nwa'ses)  River,  as  a  boundary,  297. 

Nullification,  in  1798-99,  226-228,  332;  in 
South  Carolina,  276-279,  288,  311,  334!  in 
Wisconsin,  313. 

OGDEN  (Utah),  railroad  junction,  405,  406. 
Oglethorpe  (o'gl-thorp) ,  Gen.  James,  founder 

of  Georgia,  71-73,  211. 
Ohio,  Indian  mounds  in,  42;  Western  Reserve 


XXXVI 


INDEX 


in,  193;  Indian  wars  in,  222;  admission  to 
Union,  195,  259;  immigration  to,  258,  330 
a  free  State,  259,  310;  commerce,  231;  oil 
found  in,  325,  326;  presidents  from,  287, 
403,  412,  415,  426,  437,  464- 

Ohio  Company,  formed,  124. 

Ohio  River,  forks  of,  124,  125;  mouth,  358; 
Indians  near,  108;  posts  on,  123;  as  a  bound 
ary,  146,  178,  179,  193,  222;  route  to  West, 
34,  208,  254,  257,  268;  craft  on,  208,  237. 

Ohio  Valley,  123-125,  129. 

Okhotsk  (o-chotsk')  Sea,  sealing  in,  435. 

Oklahoma  (ok-la-ho'ma),  explored,  23;  in 
Louisiana  Purchase,  233;  American  desert, 
300;  settled,  426-428;  admission,  428. 

Oklahoma  City,  origin  of  name,  42;  built,  428. 

Old  North  Church,  151,  152,  155. 

Old  South  Meeting-House,  145. 

Omaha  (o'ma-ha),  growth,  405,  406;  exposi 
tion  at,  453;  on  map,  299- 

Oneida  (o-ni'da)  Indians,  40. 

Onondaga  (on-on-da'ga)  Indians,  40. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  195,  196,  213. 

Oregon,  climate,  407;  explored,  332;  early  set 
tlements,  236,  295,  298;  joint  occupation, 
262,  263,  293-296;  Spanish  claims,  257,  439; 
annexation,  296,  334;  a  territory,  323;  ad 
mission  to  Union,  318. 

Oregon  trail,  described,  294,  295,  304,  405. 

Orient,  trade  with  Europe,  1-7;  Dutch  in,  28; 
modern  commerce  with,  319,  450,  456.  See 
also  China,  India,  and  Japan. 

Oriskany  (o-ris'ka-ni) ,  battle  of,  172. 

Oswego  (N.Y.),  in  Revolution,  171. 

Otis,  James,  137,  143,  158. 

Ottawa  (ot'a-wa)  Indians,  40,  133. 

Ottawa  River,  route  via,  32. 

PACIFIC  COAST,  Indians  of,  40;  Drake  explores, 
28;  Lewis  and  Clark  on,  236;  Fremont  on, 
299;  settlement  on,  293-296;  growth,  406; 
population,  407. 

Pacific  Ocean,  discovered,  19,  47;  named,  20; 
sought,  21,  56;  crossed,  28,  47,  48;  commerce 
in,  407;  cable,  400,  455;  possessions  in,  448, 
449.  See  also  Orient. 

Pacific  Railroads,  402,  405,  406;  on  map,  299. 

Paine,  Thomas,  158,  159,  198. 

Pakenham,  Gen.  Edward,  251-253. 

Palos  (pa-los'),  Columbus's  departure  from,  9; 
his  return  to,  13. 

Pamlico  (pam-le'ko)  Sound,  explored,  15. 

Panama  (pa-na-ma'),  Isthmus  of,  barrier  to 
navigation,  14;  discovery,  19,  47,  454;  during 
gold  rush,  303;  Canal,  454,  455;  Exposition, 
481. 

Panama  Canal  Zone,  government,  455. 

Pan-American  Congresses,  429. 

Pango  Pango,  Pacific  port,  448. 

Panics:  of  1837,  282-284,  333;  of  1857,  321,  333; 
of  1873,  407,  408,  508;  of  1893,  431-433,  508. 

Patroons,  Dutch  colonists,  95,  104. 

Pawtucket  (R.I.),  origin  of  name,  43. 


Payne,  Sereno  E.,  author  of  tariff,  465. 

Peace  movement,  467,  485,  494. 

Peary  (pert),  Robert  E.,  discovers  North  Pole, 

475- 

Peking  (China),  siege  of,  450. 
Penn,  William,  founds  Pennsylvania,  100-105; 

portrait,  100. 

Penn,  Sir  William,  English  admiral,  100. 
Penn    family,    proprietors    of    Pennsylvania, 

104. 

Pennsylvania:  Indians  of,  40;  in  colonial  times, 
100-105,  120,  126,  128,  134;  boundary  dis 
pute,  103,  104,  193;  during  Revolution,  168, 
172-174,  178,  180;  early  transportation,  208, 
258;  State  debts,  217;  Whiskey  Rebellion  in, 
219,  332;  free  State,  209,  259,  310;  during 
Civil  War,  347;  oil  discoveries  in,  325,  326; 
labor  troubles,  457,  458;  newspaper,  126; 
President  from,  321. 
Pensacola  (pen-sa-ko'la) ,  Spanish  capture, 

186;  on  map,  192. 
Pensions,  for  war  veterans,  386. 
Pequot  (pe'kwot)  Indians,  war  with,  89. 
Pere  Marquette  (par  mar-ket')  River,  36. 
Perry,    Matthew    Calbraith,    in    Japan,    319, 

334- 

Perry,  Capt.  Oliver  H.,  naval  officer,  247,  248. 
Pershing,  Gen.  John  J.,  commands  American 

troops  in  France,  497,  498,  506. 
Personal  Liberty  laws,  313,  338. 
Petersburg    (Va.),   siege,   374,   390;   captured, 

380;  on  map,  350. 
Petition  to  Congress,  right  of,  275.    See  also 

Constitution,  Appendix  A. 
Petroleum,  discovery,  325,  326,  334;  pipe  lines 

for,  326. 

Philippine  (fil'ip-in)  Islands,  discovered,  20, 
439;  captured,  442,  443;  United  States  in 
possession,  447,  448. 

Pickett,  Gen.  George  E.,  at  Gettysburg,  366. 
Pierce    (pers),    Franklin,    President,    316-320, 

338;  biography,  316. 
Pike,  Zebulon  M.,  236,  237,  300. 
Pike's  Peak,  discovered,  236,  237;  gold  near, 

324,  325. 
Pilgrims,  in  England,  76;  in  Holland,  76,  77; 

come  to  America,  77-80. 
Pinta  (pen'ta),  Columbus's  ship,  9,  u. 
Piracy,  in  colonial  times,  117. 
Pitt,   William,    English   statesman,    128,    129; 
friendly  to  colonists,  136,  139,  140,  141,  148, 
149,  190. 
Pittsburg  (Pa.),  site  of,  124;  origin  of  name, 

129;  Western  port,  208,  268;  on  map,  392. 
Pittsburg  Landing  (Tenn.),  battle  at,  359,  369, 

390;  on  map,  368. 
Pizarro  (pi-za'ro),  Francisco,  18. 
Plains  of  Abraham,  battle  of,  130,  134- 
Plantation    system,    begins,    60;    in    colonial 
times,  107,  108,  134;  in  1790,  210;  in  later 
South,  270,  271.  See  also  Lands. 
Platform,  of  political  party,  296. 
Plattsburg  (N.Y.),  battle  near,  249,  252. 


INDEX 


XXXVll 


Plymouth  (plim'uth),  Drake  at,  27;  Pilgrims 

at,  78,  79;  on  map,  76. 
Plymouth  Colony,  founded,  78-82;  emigration 

from,  88;  joins  Confederation,  91. 
Plymouth   Company,  charter,   54  i   grant,   68, 

75;  on  map,  54- 

Pocahontas  (p5-ka-hon'tas) ,  58,  59,  65. 
Polk  (pok),  James  K.,  President,  293-306. 
Polo,  Marco,  early  traveler,  6. 
Ponce  de  Leon  (pon'tha  da  la-on'),  Juan,  dis 
covers  Florida,  19,  21. 

Pontiac  (pon'ti-ak),  Ottawa  chief,  132,  133- 
Pony  express,  304,  305. 
Popular  sovereignty,  proposed,  316,  31?. 
Population,  Indian,  40;  in  1790,  206,  213;  center 

of,  469. 
Port  Hudson  (La.),  Confederate  fortress,  361, 

368;  captured,  370,  390;  on  map,  368. 
Port  Royal  (N.  S.),  founded,  31,  55- 
Portage  routes,  33;  map  of,  35- 
Porter,  Admiral  David  D.,  390. 
Portland  (Ore.),  235.  4O7,  462;  on  map,  392. 
Porto  Rico  (re'ko),  a  Spanish  colony,  19,  439; 

ceded  to  United  States,  445;  government, 

447,  448. 
Portsmouth    (ports'muth),    New    Hampshire, 

settlement,  88;  treaty  at,  456;  on  map,  87. 
Portuguese    (por-tu-gez') ,   trade  with   Orient, 

1-3;  exploring  voyages,  4-7,  17-19;  Colum 
bus  among,  6,  7;  trade  with,  109. 
Postal  service,  in  colonial  times,  118;  in  1790, 

208;  rates  reduced,  417- 
Potawatomi  (pot-a-wot'o-mi)  Indians,  40. 
Potomac  (po-to'mak)  River,  in  colonial  times, 

54,  68,  188;  Civil  War,  350,  351,  366. 
Powhatan  (pou-ha-tan'),  Indian  chief,  58. 
Prescott,  Col.  William,  at  Bunker  Hill,  155. 
Presidency,  in  Constitution,  201,  213;  form  of 

election  changed,  230;  third  term  for,  223, 

239,  281;  in  House  of  Representatives,  230, 

264;  Succession  Act,  423. 
Primary,  direct,  467. 
Princeton  (N.  J.),  battle  at,  170,  203;  Congress 

at,  187,  194;  college,  114;  on  map,  166. 
Printing-press,  invented,  5,  47;  cylinder  press, 

328,  334- 

Prison  reform,  330. 
Privateers,  in  Revolution,  180;  in  War  of  1812, 

252;  in  Civil  War,  352,  355. 
Progressive  party,  471. 
Proprietary  colonies,  defined,^. 
Providence  (R.  I.),  settled,  85,  90. 
Prussia,  warlike  and  ambitious,  482,  483. 
Public  domain,  formation,  193;  organized,  196. 

See  also  Lands. 

Pueblo  (pweb'lo)  Indians,  22-24,  40- 
Pulaski  (pu-las'ki),  Count  Casimir,  170,  190. 
Pullman  (111.),  labor  troubles  at,  433. 
Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act,  461,  462. 
Puritans,  in  England,  75,  76;  in  America,  81, 

82,  84,  85,  89. 

Put-in-Bay,  battle  near,  247,  248. 
Putnam,  Gen.  Israel,  at  Bunker  Hill,  155. 


QUAKERS,  in  New  England,  86;  in  New  Jersey, 
99;  in  Pennsylvania,  100,  109;  treatment  of 
Indians,  103. 

Quebec,  under  French  regime,  31,  34,  38,  123; 
captured  by  British,  129-131;  during  Revo 
lution,  156,  179;  on  map,  122. 

Quebec  Act,  146. 

Queenstown  (Ont.),  battle  at,  245. 

"Quivira,"  search  for,  22,  23. 

RAILROADS,  earliest,  266-268;  built  by  States, 
284;  across  Panama,  303;  transcontinental, 
402,  405,  406;  regulation  of,  423,  424,  461; 
passes  forbidden,  424;  strikes,  408,  433. 

Railway  Rate  Act,  424,  461. 

Raleigh  (ra'li),  Sir  Walter,  colonizing,  50-52, 
54,  134;  biography,  50;  portrait,  51. 

Randolph  (ran'dolf),  Edmund,  216. 

Rapidan  (rap-i-dan')  River,  in  Civil  War,  373- 

Rappahannock  (rap-a-han'ok)  River,  in  Civil 
War,  306,  365. 

Reciprocity,  in  tariff  act,  426,  467. 

Reclamation  Service.  See  Irrigation. 

Reconstruction,  Lincoln's  plan,  394;  Johnson's, 
395;  Congressional,  395-397;  completed, 

403- 

Red  Cross  Society,  objects  of,  446. 

Referendum  and  recall,  466. 

Reforms,  329,  330,  334,  476,  477- 

Regicides,  in  America,  89,  90. 

Religion,  of  the  Indians,  41,  42;  motive  for  ex 
plorations,  7,  24,  36;  toleration  in  Southern 
colonies,  69,  ?o;  struggle  in  England,  75~77; 
motive  for  colonization,  77,  82,  100;  intoler 
ance  in  New  England,  84-86;  liberty  in  col 
onies,  90,  98,  99;  New  England  churches,  108, 
113;  denominations  divided  by  slavery,  319- 
See  also  Catholics  and  Missions. 

Representative  assemblies,  in  colonies,  61-64, 
66,  98,  99,  101-103. 

Republican  party,  formed,  318,  319,  333;  elects 
presidents,  336,  411,  426,  437;  defeated,  420; 
in  Illinois,  323;  in  South,  411. 

Revere  (re-verO,  Paul,  warns  colonists,  152. 

Rhode  Island,  colonized,  85,  86,  90;  in  colonial 
times,  91,  92,  116,  143;  during  Confederation, 
197,  199;  free  State,  259,  310. 

Rice,  grown  in  Southern  colonies,  71,  108,  115; 
crops  of,  210,  270,  308,  344. 

Richmond  (Va.),  site  visited,  56;  Confederate 
capital,  338,  347,  35o,  35 1,  372;  attempts  to 
capture,  3SO,  356,  373,  376,  379,  389;  taken, 
380,  382;  on  map,  350. 

Rio  Grande  (re-6  gran'da)  River,  as  a  bound 
ary,  38,  297,  301;  fighting  near,  467,  468. 

Roads,  in  colonial  times,  115;  improvements  in, 
207,  208,  213,  254,  257.  See  also  National 
Road  and  Trails. 

Roanoke  Island,  settled,  51,  52;  on  map,  54- 

Rocky  Mountains,  discovered  by  French,  38; 
explored,  235,  298-300;  Indians  of,  40. 

Roosevelt  (ros'velt),  Theodore,  in  Spanish- 
American  War,  444;  in  cabinet,  454;  Vice- 


XXXV111 


INDEX 


President,  453;  President,  407,  454-463; 
nominee  of  Progressive  party,  47 1 . 

Rosecrans  (rd'ze-kranz) ,  Gen.  William  S.,  37 1. 

Rough  Riders,  in  Spanish  War,  444. 

Roundheads,  in  Virginia,  63,  64. 

Roxbury  (Mass.),  settled,  82;  in  Revolution, 
152;  on  map,  151. 

Royal  colonies,  denned,  63;  Massachusetts,  86; 
New  Jersey,  99;  Carolina,  71;  Georgia,  73. 

Rumsey,  James,  inventor,  237.   ~"^ 

Russia,  in  North  America,  261;  abolishes  slav 
ery,  209;  friendly  to  Union,  354;  sells  Alaska, 
400;  seal  hunters,  434,  435;  in  China,  450; 
in  WTorld  War,  483,  502. 

Rutgers  (rut'gcrz)  College,  founded,  114. 

SACAJAWEA  (sak-a-ja-we'a) ,  235. 
Sacramento  (Cal.),  gold  found  near,  302;  Fre 
mont  in,  300;  on  map,  299. 
St.  Augustine  (Fla.),  founded,  23;  siege  of,  72. 
St.  John's  River  (Fla.),  as  boundary,  71. 
St.  Lawrence  River,  discovered,  31;  explored, 

33,  34,  48;  as  boundary,  98,  171;  settlements 

on,  121,  123,  134. 

St.  Leger  (sant  lej'er),  Col.  Barry.  172,  181. 
St.  Louis  (Mo.),  236,  304;  in  Civil  W7ar,  358; 

bridge  at,  414;  exposition,  462. 
St.  Mary's  (Md.),  founded,  68. 
St.  Pierre  (sah-pyarO  Island,  131. 
Salem  (Mass.),  settlement  at,  81;  witchcraft, 

92;  on  map,  87. 
Samoan  (sa-mo'an)  Islands,  divided,  448;  our 

possessions  in,  449. 

Samoset  (sam'6-set) ,  visits  Plymouth,  80. 
Sampson,  Admiral  William  T.,  443-445. 
San  Antonio  (san  an-to'ni-o),  battle  of  Alamo, 

289;  on  map,  297. 
San  Francisco  (Cal.),  in  gold  mining  days,  303- 

305;  anti-Chinese  riots,  408;  Pacific  Coast 

port,  405,  407;  earthquake,  459. 
San  Francisco  Bay,  settlements  on,  300,  304. 
San  Jacinto  (san  ja-sin'to),  battle  of,  290. 
San  Juan  (san  H6-an')  hill,  charge  on,  444. 
San    Salvador    (san    sal-va-dorO    Island.     See 

Watling's  Island. 

Sanitary  Commission,  work  of,  387. 
Santa  Anna,  Gen.  Antonio  L.,  290. 
Santa  Fe  (fa),  founded,  23;  trail  to,  299,  301. 
Santa  Maria,  Columbus's  ship,  9,  10. 
Santiago     (san-te-a'go) ,     Cuba,     in     Spanish- 
American  War,  443-445;  map,  443. 
Santo  Domingo.  See  Haiti. 
Saratoga,  battle  of,  172,  179,  190;  on  map,  166. 
Saskatchewan  (sas-kach'e-wan)  River,  38. 
Sauk  Indians,  40. 
Savannah   (Ga.),  founded,  72;  in  Civil  Wrar, 

374-376,  390;  on  map,  352. 
Savannah,  first  ocean  steamship,  238. 
Savannah 'River,  as  boundary,  71. 
Saybrook  (Conn.),  settled,  88. 
Schenectady  (ske-nek'ta-di) ,  in  colonial  wars, 

121 ;  first  railroad  to,  266;  on  map,  122. 
Schley  (shla),  Admiral  Winfield  S.,  443-445. 


Schuylkill  (skol'kill)  River,  101. 

Scotch,  in  Georgia,  72;  New  Jersey,  99. 

Scotch-Irish,  immigrants,  104,  107,  109,  272. 

Scott,  Gen.  Winfield,  in  Mexican  War,  298. 
commander-in-chief,  340. 

Screw  propellers,  invented,  328,  358. 

Scrooby  (Eng.),  home  of  Pilgrims,  76. 

Seal  fisheries,  disputes  over,  434,  435. 

Seattle  (Wash.),  42;  growth,  407;  on  map,  392. 

Secession,  threatened  by  New  England,  244; 
of  Southern  States,  337-339;  Northern  opin 
ions,  341;  settled  by  war,  388,  389,  391. 

Seminole  (sem'i-nol)  Indians,  40,  257,  272,  273. 

Seneca  (sen'e-ka)  Indians,  Iroquois  tribe,  40. 

Separatists,  in  England,  76. 

Servia,  attacked  by  Austria,  483. 

Seven  Days'  Battles,  in  Virginia,  355,  389. 

Seville  (sev'il),  Columbus  buried  at,  14. 

Seward,  William  H.,  attempt  to  kill,  382. 

Sewing  machine,  invented,  329,  475. 

Shackamaxon  (shak-a-max'on) ,  treaty  at,  103. 

Shawnee  Indians,  40,  242. 

Shawnee  Prophet,  revolt  of,  242. 

Shays,  Daniel,  leads  rebellion,  i9 

Shenandoah  Valley,  in  Civil  War,  355,  356, 
379,  38o,  390. 

Sheridan,  Gen.  Philip  H.,  in  Shenandoah  Val 
ley,  379,  380,  390,  39i;  biography,  379,  380. 

Sherman,  Roger,  147,  159. 

Sherman,  Gen.  William  T.,  at  Vicksburg,  369; 
at  Chattanooga,  371;  march  to  the  sea,  374- 
376,  390;  advances  North,  376,  379,  382,  391; 
biography,  369. 

Shiloh  (shi'lo) .  See  Pittsburg  Landing. 

Shipbuilding  in  the  colonies,  109,  in,  134,  196; 
in  the  World  War,  500,  501. 

Ships,  early  European,  i,  4;  Columbus's  fleet, 
9-11;  New  England  fishing  vessels,  10; 
Spanish  caravels,  10,  26;  galleons,  26;  in 
colonial  times,  77,  78,  109,  118;  frigates,  180, 
181;  ironclads,  357,  358,  390,  438.  See  also 
Navy,  Screw  propellers,  and  Steamboats. 

Sholes,  Christopher  L.,  inventor,  509. 

Shoshone  (sho-sho'ne)  dam,  for  irrigation,  406. 

Sierra  Nevada  (ne-va'da)  Mountains,  304. 

Silk,  attempt  to  raise,  72. 

Silver,  in  Oriental  trade,  2;  Spanish  find,  18, 
26;  mines,  325,  407;  free  coinage,  451,  452. 

Sims,  Admiral  William  S.,  496. 

Sioux  (so)  Indians,  40,  409. 

Six  Nations  Ind.ans.  See  Iroquois. 

Slave-trade,  in  colonial  times,  27,  109;  for 
bidden,  211. 

Slavery,  Indians  in,  19;  negro,  in  Virginia,  60, 
61;  in  colonies,  71-73,  107,  108,  134;  British 
abduct  slaves,  221;  forbidden  in  Northwest 
Territory,  196,  213;  constitutional  com 
promise  on,  200;  about  1790,  209-211,  213, 
214;  foreign  nations  abolish,  209,  275;  west 
ward  extension  of,  258-261,  271,  272,  288, 
311-315;  agitation  against,  274,  275,  319; 
in  Texas,  290,  297;  in  Mexican  Purchase, 
301;  in  Kansas,  316-318;  Supreme  Court 


INDEX 


XXXIX 


decision  on,  322,  323,  333;  during  Civil  War, 
344,  354;  abolished  by  war,  361-363,  388, 
389,391;  effects  of,  307-310.  See  also  Eman 
cipation,  and  South. 

Slidell  (sll-del'),  John,  353,  354,  39O. 

Smith,  Capt.  John,  in  Virginia,  57,  58;  saved 
by  Pocahontas,  57;  explores  New  England, 
75;  monument,  65. 

Smuggling,  in  colonial  times,  no,  143;  of 
slaves,  211. 

Socialist  party,  473. 

Sons  of  Liberty,  colonial  society,  138. 

South,  in  colonial  times,  107,  108,  115,  134; 
during  Revolution,  181-185,  190;  economic 
conditions,  260,  270-272,  307-310,  326; 
urges  Mexican  War,  297;  at  beginning  of 
Civil  War,  342-345;  at  close,  385-387,  393, 
394;  reconstruction  in,  398-403,  411,  412; 
New  South,  417-419;  in  Spanish-American 
War,  446.  See  also  Reconstruction,  Slavery, 
and  Wars:  Civil. 

South  America,  discovered,  14,  17,  18,  27,  47; 
revolts  from  Spain,  261,  439;  relation  with 
United  States,  407,  429,  451.  See  also  Pan- 
American  Congresses. 

South  Carolina,  settlement,  70,  71;  during 
Revolution,  181-183;  land  cession,  193; 
State  debts,  217;  emigration  from,  258;  slave 
State,  259,  310;  nullification  in,  276-279,  288, 
334;  secedes,  337;  Sherman  in,  376;  readmis- 
sion,  397;  reconstruction  in,  397,  398,  411, 
412.  See  also  Carolina. 

South  Dakota,  in  Louisiana  Purchase,  233;  in 
Nebraska  Territory,  31?;  admission,  428. 

South  Pass,  294,  298,  304. 

South  Pole,  discovered,  475. 

South  Sea.  See  Pacific  Ocean. 

Southampton  (Eng.),  Pilgrims  at,  17. 

Southold  (Conn.),  settled,  89. 

Southwest,  explored  by  Coronado,  22,  23,  48; 
settlement  of,  258. 

Southwest  Passage,  sought  by  Columbus,  14; 

discovered,  21. 

I  Spain,  trade  with  Orient,  1-3;  aids  Columbus, 
7-io;  discoveries  and  explorations,  18-23, 
47,  48,  134;  profits  from  New  World,  17,  26, 
27;  Indian  policy,  14,  18,  19;  colonial  policy, 
4395  hostility  to  England,  26-28,  50,  51;  set 
tlements  in  United  States,  23,  24;  in  Florida, 
54,  70,  72,  98,  276;  cedes  Florida  to  England, 
131;  retakes  Florida,  186;  sells  Florida  to 
United  States,  257,  333,  439;  possesses  Loui 
siana,  131;  cedes  Louisiana  to  France,  232; 
refuses  navigation  of  Mississippi,  231,  232; 
loses  American  colonies,  261;  arrests  Pike, 
237;  treatment  of  Cuba,  440,  441;  war  with 
United  States,  440-446.  See  also  Treaties. 

Specie  payments.  See  Money. 

Speedwell,  Pilgrim  ship,  77,  78. 

Spoils  system,  under  Jackson,  273,  274,  334; 
under  Johnson,  397;  disadvantages,  415,  416. 
See  also  Civil  Service  Reform. 

Spottsylvania  Court  House,  battle  at,  373,  389. 


Squatter  sovereignty,  316,  317. 

Stage-coaches,  116,  207. 

Stamford  (Conn.),  settled,  89;  on  map,  88. 

Stamp  Act,  passed,  136;  opposed,  137-139, 
189;  repealed,  139,  142,  189. 

Standish,  Miles,  in  Plymouth  colony,  80. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  in  Lincoln's  cabinet,  329, 
383;  removed  by  Johnson,  397,  398. 

"Star-Spangled  Banner,"  composed,  250. 

Stark,  Col.  John,  Revolutionary  officer,  172. 

Steamboats,  invented,  237;  on  ocean,  10,  238, 
330;  centennial  celebration,  475. 

Steel,  Bessemer  process,  329. 

Stephens  (ste'venz),  Alexander  H.,  338. 

Stephenson,  George,  English  engineer,  266. 

Steuben  (stu'ben),  Baron  Friedrich,  drills 
Continental  Army,  170,  190. 

Stevens,  John,  inventor,  237,  266. 

Stockton,  Com.  Robert,  in  California,  300. 

Stony  Point,  captured,  179;  on  map,  166. 

Stowe  (sto),  Harriet  Beecher,  314,  315. 

Straits  of  Fuca  (fu'ka) ,  boundary  in,  404. 

Straits  of  Mackinac  (mak'i-na),  French  in,  35. 

Straits  of  Magellan  (ma-jel'an),  19. 

Stuart,  Gilbert,  artist,  250. 

Stuyvesant  (stl've-sant) ,  Peter,  96,  97,  105. 

Submarine,  as  a  weapon,  487. 

Suez  (so'ez),  Isthmus  of,  i. 

Suffrage,  for  negroes,  397-399;  for  women,  428, 
429,  4/8,  479- 

Sugar  Act,  in  colonial  times,  in. 

Sumner,  Charles,  317,  318,  333. 

Sumter,  Gen.  Thomas,  183. 

Supreme  Court  established,  201,  213;  impor 
tance,  216,  217;  Dred  Scott  decision,  322,323, 
333- 

Sussex,  sunk,  492. 

Sutter,  Capt.  John  A.,  302,  303. 

Swedes,  colonize  Delaware,   105;  in  Pennsyl 
vania,  lor,  104;   aid   arbitration,  434;  give 
Nobel  prizes,  456.  See  also  Scandinavians. 
Swiss,  in  South,  107. 

TACOMA  (ta-kS'ma),  origin  of  name,  42;  growth, 
407;  on  map,  392. 

Taft,  William  H.,  governor  of  Philippines,  455; 
in  Cuba,  447;  inauguration,  288;  President, 
464-471;  aids  conservation,  461. 

Tampa  Bay,  De  Soto  in,  21. 

Tar,  produced  in  Carolina,  108. 

Tariff,  revenue  from,  283;  theories  of,  270-272; 
first,  218,  219,  332;  of  1816,  253,  254;  of  1828, 
276-278;  of  1832,  277,  278;  of  1833  (com 
promise),  278,  279,  333;  in  Confederacy, 
337;  McKinley  Act  (1890),  426,  509;  Wilson 
(1894),  431,  509;  Dingley  (1897),  437,  509; 
Payne- Aldrich  (1909),  465,  4735  Underwood 
(1913),  479- 

Tarleton  (tarl'ton),  Col.  Sir  Banastre,  182. 

Tarrytown  (N.  Y.),  Andre  captured  at,  180. 

Taverns,  in  colonial  times,  115,  116. 

Taxation,  by  English  Parliament,  135,  138, 
142-145,  175,  176,  189;  during  Confedera- 


xl 


INDEX 


tion,  194;  provided  by  Constitution,  201; 
Hamilton's  plan  for,  218,  219;  during  Civil 
War,  384;  in  Reconstruction,  399;  Spanish 
War,  441;  income,  479.  See  also  Tariff. 

Taxation  and  representation,  139-142. 

Taylor,  Gen.  Zachary,  in  Mexican  War,  297, 
298;  President,  310-313;  biography,  310. 

Tea,  taxed  by  British,  142-145. 

Tecumseh  (te-kum'se),  Shawnee  leader,  242, 
248,  287. 

Telegraph,  first  used,  291-293;  across  the 
ocean,  399,  400;  around  the  world,  400,  455. 

Telephone,  service,  328,  475. 

Temperance  reform,  begun,  268,  269;  in  colonial 
Georgia,  72,  73. 

Tennessee  (ten-e-se'),  in  pioneer  times,  206, 
207,  231;  admission  to  Union,  223;  growth, 
258;  in  War  of  1812,  248,  251;  slave  State, 
259,  3io;  secedes,  342;  during  Civil  War, 
351,  36o,  370;  readmitted,  397;  Presidents 
from,  272,  293,  394. 

Tennessee  River,  during  Civil  War,  346,  351, 
358,  359,  370,  390. 

Tenure-of-Office  Act,  397- 

Texas,  explored  by  Coronado,  23;  by  La  Salle, 
37;  belongs  to  Spain,  257;  independence  of, 
289,  290;  annexation,  290,  291,  296,  333; 
admission  to  Union,  310;  boundary,  297;  in 
American  desert,  300;  slave  State,  310;  se 
cedes,  337;  during  Civil  War,  368,  390;  oil 
found  in;  325. 

Thames  (temz)  River  (Ont.),  battle  near,  248. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  first  celebration,  84. 

Thomas,  Gen.  George  H.,  360,  371,  391. 

Ticonderoga.   See  Fort  Ticonderoga. 

Tilden,  S.  J.,  candidate  for  President,  411. 

Tippecanoe  (tip"e-ka-no'),  battle  at,  242,  286. 

Titusville  (Pa.),  oil  found  near,  325. 

Tobacco,  grown  by  Indians,  45;  taken  to 
Europe,  52;  in  colonial  Virginia,  59,  60,  63, 
107,  108,  no;  a  Southern  crop,  210,  211, 
270,  308,  344- 

Toleration  Act,  in  Maryland,  69,  70. 

Tonty  (ton'te),  Henry  de,  French  explorer,  36. 

Toombs  (tomz),  Robert,  Confederate  states 
man,  341. 

Tories,  141.  See  also  Loyalists. 

Toronto  (to-ron'to),  in  War  of  1812,  245,  250; 
on  map,  245. 

Town-meetings,  in  New  England,  82,  83;  sup 
pressed  by  British,  146. 

Trade.  See  Commerce. 

Trails,  on  Western  plains,  294,  295,  298-301, 
304;  map,  299. 

Transportation,  in  colonial  times,  115-118;  in 
1790,  207,  208;  after  War  of  1812,  254,  257, 
258;  early  canals  and  railroads,  264-268;  to 
Far  West,  294,  295,  298,  299,  303-305;  after 
Civil  War,  404-406. 

Treaties:  with  Indians,  102,  103;  arbitration, 
467;  commercial,  under  Confederation,  194, 
213;  with  France  (1763),  131;  (1778),  175, 
220;  with  Great  Britain  (1783),  126,  186, 


190,  225,  262;  (Jay's,  1794),  221,  222,  225, 
332;  with  Spain  (1795),  231;  with  Great 
Britain  (Ghent,  1814),  252,  253,  332;  (1818), 
262,  263,  289,  294;  with  Spain  (1819),  257; 
with  Great  Britain  (1842),  288,  289,  334; 
with  Texas  (1844),  290;  with  Great  Britain 
(1846),  296;  with  Mexico  (1848),  298,  301; 
with  Japan  (1854),  319,  334;  with  Great 
Britain  (1871),  404;  with  Spain  (1898),  445- 
448;  Russo-Japanese  (1905),  456. 

Trent,  British  steamship,  353,  354. 

Trenton  (N.  J.),  battle  at,  168,  169,  190,  256; 
Washington's  reception  at,  203. 

Tripoli  (trip'o-li),  hostilities  with,  239. 

Trusts,  legislation  concerning,  423,  424,  470, 
480. 

Tunis  (tu'nis),  hostilities  with,  239. 

Turks,  capture  Christian  countries,  i,  2,  4,  47. 

Turpentine,  produced  in  Carolina,  108. 

Tuscarora  (tus-k?,-ro'ra)  Indians,  40. 

Tuskegee  (tus-ke'ge)  Institute  (Ala.),  419. 

Tutuila  (to-to-e'la)','  Samoan  Island,  448. 

Tweed,  William  M.,  political  boss,  409. 

Tyler,  John,  President,  288-292,  298;  biog 
raphy,  288. 

UNDERGROUND  RAILROAD,  313,  314. 

Union,  steps  toward:  New  England  Confeder 
acy,  90,  91;  Albany  plan,  125-127;  Stamp 
Act  Congress,  139;  Committees  of  Corre 
spondence,  144,  147,  189-  First  Continental 
Congress,  147;  adoption  of  Independence, 
159-163;  Articles  of  Confederation,  192,  193; 
necessity  for  stronger,  192-194,  196,197,  199; 
Annapolis  Convention,  199;  Constitutional 
Convention,  199,  200;  ratification,  201-203; 
strengthened  by  War  of  1812,  253;  Jackson 
defends,  276-278;  threatened  by  Secession, 
310,  3331  Lincoln  on,  339;  effect  of  Civil  War, 
388;  completed,  468,  469. 

Union  Pacific  Railway,  built,  402,  405,  406. 

United  Colonies  of  New  England.  See  New 
England  Confederation. 

University  of  New  York  City,  291. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  founded,  114. 

University  of  Virginia,  founded,  230,  231. 

Utah  (u'ta),  part  of  Mexican  Purchase,  301; 
Fremont  explores,  300;  a  territory,  312; 
admission  to  Union,  428;  equal  suffrage  in, 
429. 

VALLADOLID      (val-ya-THd-le^H'),      Columbus 

buried  at,  14. 

Valley  Forge,  173,  174,  190;  on  map,  166. 
Van  Buren   (van  bu'ren),  Martin,  President, 

281-286;  biography,  281. 
Vancouver  (van-ko'ver),  George,  294. 
Van  Rensselaer  (van  ren'se-ler) ,  Gen.  Stephen, 

in  War  of  1812,  245,  246. 
Venezuela  .(ven-e-zwe'la),  dispute  with  Great 

Britain,  435,  456. 
Vermont,  in  Revolution,  154,   172;  admission 

to  Union,  223,  259;  free  State,  259,  310. 


INDEX 


xli 


Verrazano  (ver-rat-sa'no) ,  Giovanni  da,  dis 
covers  New  York  Bay,  29. 

Vespucius  (ves-po'che-us) ,  Americus,  explorer, 
17,  18,  47;  portrait,  18. 

Vicksburg  (Miss.),  Confederate  fortress,  360, 
361;  besieged,  368-370,  390;  on  map,  368. 

Villa,  Francisco,  491. 

Vincennes  (vin-senz'),  in  Revolution,  178. 

Vinland,  Ericson  in,  6. 

Virgin  Islands,  purchased  from  Denmark,  495- 

Virginia  (ver-jin'i-a),  named,  51,  first  settle 
ments,  50-52,  54-66,  134;  population  in 
1670,  64;  representative  assembly,  61-64, 
138,  231;  colonial  products,  52,  107,  108,  211; 
Western  claims,  108,  124,  125,  128;  boundary 
dispute,  193;  land  cession,  193;  during 
Revolution,  147,  182-185;  under  Confedera 
tion,  194;  in  1790,  206,  207;  resolutions  of 
1798,  226-228,  332;  slavery  in,  211,  275,  3io, 
359;  secedes,  342;  during  Civil  War,  347,  355, 
367,  389,  390;  motto  on  seal,  382;  presidents 
from,  203,  230,  241,  256,  287,  288,  310. 

WABASH  RIVER,  in  Clark's  campaign,  178,  179. 

Wampanoag  (wam-pa-n5'ag)  Indians,  40. 

Warren,  Gen.  Joseph,  at  Bunker  Hill,  155; 
killed,  156. 

Wars:  —  Barbary  States,  239;  Civil,  336-391; 
Colonial,  72,  121-133,  189;  England  (1812), 
242-252,  332,  354;  European,  232,  238,  241, 
243;  French,  225,  226,332;  Indian,  89, 91,92; 
Pontiac's,  132,  133;  in  Northwest,  222,  242; 
Sioux,  409;  Mexican,  297,  298,  333,  439; 
Revolution,  135-190;  Russo-Japanese,  456; 
Spanish,  439-446;  Texan,  289,  290;  the 
World,  482-495;  against  Germany,  496-507. 

Washington,  George:  ancestry,  64,  107;  in  co 
lonial  wars,  124,  125,  127,  128;  in  Virginia  as 
sembly,  62;  delegate  to  Congress,  147,  148; 
commander-in-chief,  153,  154,  159,  190;  in 
command,  156,  175;  Boston  campaign,  157; 
158;  New  Jersey  campaign,  167-170;  at  Val 
ley  Forge,  172-174;  conspiracy  against,  174; 
near  New  York,  177,  179,  182;  captures 
Cornwallis,  184,  185;  farewell  to  army,  186- 
188;  in  Constitutional  Convention,  199;  ap 
proves  Constitution,  201,  202;  a  Federalist, 
201,  332;  inauguration,  203,  204,  213,  218; 
President,  215-223;  unpopularity,  222;  re 
tires,  222,  223,  239;  loans  money  to  gov 
ernment,  170,  194;  on  Independence,  158; 
farewell  address,  223,  262;  neutrality  procla 
mation,  220,  332;  death,  228;  character,  124, 
184,  188,  228;  portrait,  215. 

Washington  City,  made  national  capital,  217, 
218;  capitol  built,  231;  inaugurations  at,  231, 
288;  in  War  of  1812,  249,  260,  332;  first  tele 
graph  at,  291-293;  during  Kansas  struggle, 
317;  in  Civil  War,  347,  350,  352,  355,  356, 
389;  Lincoln  assassinated,  382;  review  of 
troops,  383;  in  recent  years,  429,  434,  461; 
buildings  at,  284,  451,  454. 

Washington  (State),  climate,  407;  in  Oregon 


country,  262,  296;  Territory.  323;  admission 
to  Union,  428;  equal  suffrage  in,  429. 

Washington  and  Lee  College,  114,  346. 

Watertown  (Mass.),  settled,  82. 

Watling's  Island,  Columbus  on,  12. 

Watt,  James,  discoverer  of  steam  power,  210. 

Wayne,  Gen.  Anthony,  at  Stony  Point,  179; 
defeats  Indians,  222. 

Webster,  Daniel,  statesman,  277,  290,  312,  313, 
315;  makes  treaty,  288,  289;  citations  from, 
195,  219,  276,  333;  Bunker  Hill  oration,  156; 
death,  315;  biography,  277. 

Webster,  Noah,  maker  of  dictionary,  279,  334- 

Welsh,  in  United  States,  101,  104,  109. 

West,  during  colonial  wars,  122-125,  128,  137; 
annexed  to  Quebec,  146;  during  Revolution, 
178,  179;  States  cede  claims  in,  193;  organ 
ized,  195,  196;  conditions  in  1790,  206-208; 
Indian  troubles  in,  222;  wants  free  Missis 
sippi  navigation,  231,  232;  speculation  in 
lands,  282,  321;  explorations  of  Fremont, 
298-300;  emigrants  aid  in  development,  308, 
330;  during  Civil  War,  358-360,  368-372, 
374,  39o;  recent  development,  404-407,  426- 
429,  460,  461. 

West  Indies,  visited  by  Columbus,  7,  11-14; 
belong  to  Spain,  18,  134,  439;  trade  with,  73, 
108,  109,  221;  sugar  grown  in,  in;  harbors 
of,  183,  353.  See  also  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

West  Point,  during  Revolution,  179,  180;  mili 
tary  academy  at,  338,  346;  graduates,  369, 
379,  403. 

West  Virginia,  admission  to  Union,  343;  oil 
found  in,  325. 

Western  migration,  to  Connecticut,  88,  89; 
trans- Allegheny,  196,  207,  208,  222,  237,  272; 
into  Louisiana  Purchase,  232;  after  War  of 
1812,  253-255,  257-259,  333;  aided  by  canals 
and  railroads,  264-267;  into  Texas,  289;  into 
Oregon,  295;  into  Mexican  Purchase,  301; 
into  California,  302-305;  into  Colorado,  324, 
325;  after  Civil  War,  383,  404-407;  to  Okla 
homa,  426-428. 

Western  Reserve,  in  Ohio,  193. 

Wethersfield  (Conn.),  settled,  88. 

Wheeler,  Gen.  Joseph,  in  Spanish  War,  446. 

Wheeling  (Va.),  on  route  to  West,  208,  254. 

Whig  party,  elects  President,  286-288,  310; 
broken  up,  318. 

Whiskey  Rebellion,  219,  220,  332. 

White  Mountains,  forest  reserves  in,  461. 

Whitman,  Dr.  Marcus,  294. 

Whitney,  Eli,  inventor,  210,  213. 

Wilderness,  battles  of,  373,  389. 

Wilderness  Road,  to  West,  207,  208. 

Wilkes,  Capt.  Charles,  353,  354- 

Wilkes,  John,  140. 

William  and  Mary,  English  sovereigns,  87,  98. 

William  and  Mary  College,  founded,  65,  66, 
114;  graduates,  230,  231,  256,  288,  415. 

Williams,  Roger,  founds  Providence,  84. 

Williamsburg,  capital  of  Virginia,  66. 

Wilmington  (Del.),  founded,  105. 


xlii 


INDEX 


Wilmot  Proviso,  301,  324. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  President,  473-507;  attitude 
on  Mexican  question  and  Panama  Canal, 
480,  481,  491;  proclaims  neutrality,  484;  pro 
tests  submarine  blockade,  488;  dismisses 
German  ambassador,  495;  urges  war,  496. 

Winthrop,  John,  emigrates  to  America,  81,  82. 

Wisconsin,  Indian  mounds  in,  42;  discovery, 
33;  French  in,  35,  36;  admission  to  Union, 
195;  free  State,  310;  migration  to,  330;  nulli 
fies  slavery  law,  313;  forest  fires  in,  409. 

Witchcraft,  in  New  England,  92. 

Wolfe,  Gen.  James,  captures  Quebec,  130,  134. 

Women,  among  Indians,  41;  in  colonial  Vir 
ginia,  51-53,  62,  63;  in  colonial  New  Eng 
land,  78,  83,  85,  86,  88,  91,  92,  in,  117;  in 
Middle  Colonies,  112,  114,  115,  117;  in  Can 
ada,  127,  128:  during  Revolution,  138,  155, 
176;  greet  Washington,  203,  204;  guide  Lewis 
and  Clark,  235;  at  White  House,  250;  in 
Western  migration,  208,  257,  294,  303,  304, 
427;  dictate  first  telegram,  291 ;  in  Civil  War, 


342,  386,  387;  in  reforms,  268,  315,  446;  equal 
suffrage  for,  428,  429,  478,  479. 

Wright  (rlt),  Orville,  aviator,  476. 

Wright,  Silas,  293. 

Wright,  Wilbur,  aviator,  476. 

Writs  of  Assistance,  137. 

Wyoming  (wi-6'ming),  in  Louisiana  Purchase, 
233;  explored,  298;  part  in  Mexican  Pur 
chase,  301;  Plains  of,  300;  in  Nebraska  Ter 
ritory,  317;  admission  to  Union,  428. 

Wyoming  Valley  (Pa.),  massacre  in,  178,  190; 
on  map,  166. 

X,  Y,  Z  affair,  225,  226,  332. 

YALE  COLLEGE,  founded,   114;  graduates  of 

276.  291,  464- 
York  (Can.).  See  Toronto. 
York  (Pa.),  Congress  at,  174;  on  map,  166. 
Yorktown  (Va.),  surrender  at,  183-186,  190. 

ZUNI  (zo'nye)  Indians,  pueblos  of,  22. 


ID 


°F  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


